| Foreword

Biodiversity provides an important foundation for the survival and development of the human

race. It not only affects the well-being of humanity and future generations, but also has a key

bearing on the sustainability of global development, and potentially even the rise and fall of

civilization. Since the dawn of industrial civilization, mankind has created massive material

wealth. But this has come at the cost of intensified exploitation of natural resources, which has

disrupted the balance of the earth’s ecosystems, giving rise to ecological crises manifesting in

terms of biodiversity loss and environmental damage. Now, on the brink of the sixth mass

extinction, with the global rate of species extinction accelerating, severe ecosystem

degradation and loss of biodiversity pose major threats to human survival and development.

Rising to these challenges, the United Nations has called upon the international community to

increase biodiversity awareness, asking countries worldwide to make positive efforts to

implement biodiversity protection measures. After the Convention on Biological Diversity was

signed in 1992, the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, adopted in 2010, added further

impetus for the establishment of a global biodiversity governance mechanism.

Despite widespread consensus regarding securing biodiversity and ensuring the sustainable

use of biological resources, countries’ actions on the ground have been far from sufficient, and

the progress of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity has been sluggish. As the world approaches

a crossroads in addressing the biodiversity crisis, in order to arrive at a systematic solution for

protecting biodiversity and realizing the goal of “harmonious coexistence between humanity

and nature”, both a holistic approach and a grand vision are sorely needed. On September 30,

2020, Chinese President Xi Jinping, speaking at the United Nations Summit on Biodiversity,

noted that “Ecological Civilization: Building a Shared Future for All Life on Earth, which is the

theme of next year’s Biodiversity Conference in Kunming, embodies humanity’s hope for a

better future.” China has prioritized biodiversity protection in the joint efforts to develop an

ecological civilization and to create a shared future for life on Earth, contributing Chinese

wisdom to global biodiversity protection.

Globally, biodiversity loss can be attributed to five main causes — habitat loss and degradation,

overexploitation, climate change, environmental pollution, and invasive alien species. A key

underlying driver exacerbating these problems has been the unsustainable pattern of energy

development. Since the Industrial Revolution, long-term, large-scale development and

utilization of fossil fuels has produced large volumes of greenhouse gases and other harmful

II

substances, leading to temperature increases, environmental degradation, and resource

shortages, and posing a serious threat to global biodiversity. At this rate, there is a real

possibility — especially with the climate crisis looming — of the emergence of a global

ecological crisis, disastrous for all life on Earth, sometime in the coming decades. To address

this intensifying challenge, energy, the linchpin of the problem, must be addressed, and major

efforts made to expedite the energy and electric power revolution, to mitigate and reverse the

damage inflicted by fossil fuel use on biodiversity, and to promote coordinated energy and

power development and biodiversity governance.

Global Energy Interconnection (GEI) is a new energy system steering a path towards clean

energy production, broadened energy allocation, and the electrification of energy consumption,

as well as an important platform for the large-scale development, transmission and utilization of

clean energy resources worldwide. GEI is essential enabler of the worldwide energy and

electric power revolution. Relative to the current development path, upon which economies and

societies rely on fossil fuels, GEI represents a complete game-changer: a catalyst for a new

energy development model characterized by “zero pollution, zero carbon emissions, and high

efficiency” and a radical solution for the crucial problem of fossil fuel usage, which has long

harmed and hindered biodiversity. GEI can promote the coordinated and sustainable

development of energy and the environment, offer effective measures for the protection of

biodiversity, and inject new momentum into the development of ecological civilization, and the

creation of a shared future for life on Earth.

GEI has been widely acknowledged by the international community as a systematic solution for

driving world energy transition and facilitating sustainable development. To date, it has been

included in the frameworks for advancing the UN’s 2030 Agenda, for the implementation of the

Paris Agreement, for the promotion of environmental governance, for solving electricity access,

poverty and health issues, and for other issues, and has been included in the UN High-level

Political Forum Policy Briefs for four years in a row. UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres has

described GEI as core to human sustainable development, key to inclusive global growth, and

crucial to the implementation of the UN’s 2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement.

In recent years, the Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation Organization

(GEIDCO) has advanced its research into GEI as an enabler for sustainable development,

releasing action plans concerning the implementation of the UN’s 2030 Agenda and the Paris

Agreement, the advancement of global environmental governance, and the solution of power

access, poverty and health issues. In addition, drawing on practical experience and expertise,

GEIDCO has conducted extensive study on the relationships between energy, power and

biodiversity, and has completed Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power, a

work whose aim is, via a systematic evaluation of the significance of biodiversity, to shed light

on the progress in and challenges facing global biodiversity protection, and to analyze the

main drivers of biodiversity loss. This has revealed the unsustainable, fossil fuel-dominated

pattern of energy development as the major underlying issue and contributor to the biodiversity

crisis. The book proposes new ideas and approaches, a roadmap for advancing the energy

and electric power revolution and securing biodiversity via GEI development, and a package of

feasible, practicable, and scalable solutions for promoting the energy and electric power

revolution and biodiversity protection on a worldwide basis. It consists of seven chapters:

III

Chapter 1 explains the notion of biodiversity, and the significance of its role in advancing

economic and social development, creating a shared future for life on Earth, achieving

worldwide sustainable development, and advancing human civilization.

Chapter 2 takes stock of the current status of the global biodiversity crisis from the

perspectives of species, ecosystems and genetics, reviews the progress on this front being

made by countries worldwide, and analyzes the daunting challenges facing biodiversity

protection. For example, while the pace of the crisis is beginning accelerate, the international

community lacks biodiversity protection awareness, action is lagging, solutions are lacking,

and protection measures have been ineffective.

Chapter 3 systematically explores the five main drivers of global biodiversity losses, i.e.: habitat

loss and degradation, overexploitation of biological resources, climate change, environmental

pollution, and invasive alien species, and provides some insights into future trends in

biodiversity development and the relationship between biodiversity and energy.

Chapter 4 contains an in-depth analysis into the inherent connection between energy

development and utilization and biodiversity, revolving around the five main drivers of the

biodiversity crisis. This reveals that unsustainable patterns of energy development have had a

significant impact on climate change, environmental pollution, habitat loss, overexploitation of

biological resources, and invasive species.

Chapter 5 discusses the profound significance of the energy and electric power revolution to

biodiversity protection, and proposes guiding principles, a theoretical framework, and a

pathway for advancing that revolution while promoting biodiversity protection through GEI

development. It explains how GEI offers a systematic solution for promoting biodiversity, with

fundamental and comprehensive effects in terms of addressing climate change, controlling

environmental pollution, mitigating habitat loss, promoting the sustainable utilization of

biological resources, and advancing ecological restoration.

Chapter 6 outlines the current status of biodiversity protection and of energy and electric power

development on different continents, and offers a systematic, packaged plan and roadmap for

the promotion of biodiversity through GEI development. Consisting of six plans and 21

measures, this provides a useful guide for the advancement of GEI and biodiversity on different

continents.

Chapter 7 highlights overall directions and core elements from five perspectives relating to

institutional innovation, i.e.: planning & coordination, policy incentive, finance & investment,

international cooperation, and capacity building. The book looks ahead to prospects for

promoting biodiversity through GEI, and makes a call for joint action from all stakeholders in

promoting global biodiversity and creating a shared future for life on Earth.

GEIDCO has long been committed to energy transition and global sustainable development.

We hope that this book can provide valuable reference material, for the United Nations and

national governments, relevant to the formulation of policies and plans concerning the

advancement of the energy and electric power revolution and biodiversity protection. It also

IV

offers enterprises and institutions food for thought concerning the implementation of relevant

actions. Thus it constitutes a modest contribution to the reversal of the trend towards global

biodiversity loss and to the creation of a shared future for life on Earth. Due to limitations of time

and expertise, its contents are inevitably imperfect, and readers are encouraged to provide

constructive criticism. GEIDCO stands ready and willing to cooperate with all sectors of society

in order to promote global biodiversity protection, and work towards the creation of a bright

future of harmonious coexistence between humanity and nature!

V

| Contents

Foreword

The Significance of Biodiversity

001

·························································································

1

1.1 The Meaning of Biodiversity·····················································································002

1.2 Biodiversity as an Essential Basis for Economic and Social Development ·············004

1.3 Biodiversity as a Solid Basis for Building a Shared Future for All Life on Earth·······010

1.3.1 Biodiversity Provides a Favorable Environment for the Harmonious

Coexistence of Organisms··················································································· 010

1.3.2 Biodiversity Provides Necessary Conditions for the Reproduction and

Evolution of Species····························································································· 013

1.3.3 Biodiversity Provides a Fundamental Guarantee for the Stability of

Ecosystems ·········································································································· 014

1.4 Biodiversity as a Major Pillar for Sustainable World Development ··························016

1.5 Biodiversity as a Key Factor Affecting the Rise and Fall of Human Civilization·······020

Biodiversity: Current Status and Challenges

023

···································································

2

3

2.1 Current Status of Biodiversity ··················································································024

2.1.1 Loss of Species Diversity ····················································································· 024

2.1.2 Deterioration of Ecosystem Diversity··································································· 029

2.1.3 Loss of Genetic Diversity······················································································ 033

2.2 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity··················································035

2.2.1 Evolution of Biodiversity Conservation ································································ 035

2.2.2 Implementation of Convention on Biological Diversity········································ 036

2.3 Main Challenges·······································································································038

Major Drivers of the Biodiversity Crisis

043

···········································································

3.1 Habitat Loss ·············································································································045

3.1.1 Forest Destruction ································································································ 046

VI

3.1.2 Grasslands Destruction························································································ 048

3.1.3 Destruction of Freshwater Habitats ····································································· 050

3.1.4 Destruction of Marine Habitats ············································································ 051

3.2 Excessive Consumption of Biological Resources ···················································052

3.2.1 Excessive Consumption for Energy Use ····························································· 052

3.2.2 Excessive Consumption for Food········································································ 054

3.2.3 Excessive Consumption for Medicinal Use························································· 054

3.2.4 Excessive Consumption for Clothes Making······················································· 055

3.2.5 Excessive Consumption for Handicraft Use························································ 056

3.3 Climate Change ·······································································································056

3.3.1 Temperature Increases ························································································· 057

3.3.2 Ocean Acidification······························································································· 058

3.3.3 Glacier Melting······································································································ 058

3.3.4 Extremely Severe Disasters·················································································· 059

3.4 Environmental Pollution ···························································································060

3.4.1 Air Pollution··········································································································· 061

3.4.2 Freshwater Pollution····························································································· 061

3.4.3 Soil Pollution ········································································································· 062

3.4.4 Marine Pollution···································································································· 062

3.5 Invasive Alien Species ·····························································································063

3.5.1 Unintentional Human Introduction of Alien Species············································ 064

3.5.2 Deliberate Human Introduction of Alien Species················································· 065

3.5.3 Invasion of Alien Species Indirectly Triggered by Climate Change····················· 066

3.5.4 Invasion of Genetically Modified Organisms ······················································· 067

3.6 Climate Change Is Increasingly Becoming the Overall Driver of the

Biodiversity Crisis····································································································067

Unsustainable Energy Development: an Important Cause of the Biodiversity Crisis ·······069

4

4.1 Exacerbation of Climate Change·············································································071

4.1.1 Significant Amounts of CO₂Produced by Fossil Fuel Combustion···················· 071

4.1.2 Large Amounts of Methane Are Produced during Fossil Fuel Production

and Utilization······································································································· 073

4.2 Environmental Pollution ···························································································073

4.2.1 Fresh Water and Soil Pollution due to Fossil Fuel Production···························· 073

4.2.2 Oil and Thermal Pollution Threatens Marine Ecological Security······················· 076

4.2.3 Air Pollution Caused by Fossil Fuel Combustion ················································ 078

VII

4.3 Habitat Loss ·············································································································081

4.3.1 Exploitation of Fossil Energy Intensifies Water and Soil Erosion in Mining

Areas····················································································································· 081

4.3.2 Exploitation of Fossil Energy Leads to Habitat Fragmentation··························· 083

4.3.3 Fossil Energy Exploitation and Use Consumes Significant Water

Resources············································································································· 084

4.4 Excessive Biological Resource Consumption··························································085

4.4.1 Biomass Energy Development and Usage Causes Excessive Forest

Resource Consumption ······················································································· 085

4.4.2 Limited Electricity Access Leads to Tremendous Food Waste··························· 086

4.5 Increasing Risk of Biological Invasion······································································086

4.6 Prioritizing Fossil Energy Development Seriously Threatens Biodiversity ···············088

Promoting Biodiversity Protection through the Energy and Electric Power

Revolution···························································································································089

5.1 Accelerated Energy and Electric Power Revolution Necessary to Achieve

Biodiversity Goals····································································································090

5.1.1 Biodiversity Protection Creates an Urgent Need for Green, Low-Carbon

5

6

Energy Development···························································································· 090

5.1.2 Directions of Energy and Electric Power Transition············································· 091

5.1.3 Energy and Electric Power Transition Tasks························································ 093

5.2 GEI Construction Is Core to the Energy and Electric Power Revolution··················096

5.2.1 The Essence of GEI ······························································································ 096

5.2.2 GEI Promotes the Energy and Electric Power Revolution ·································· 101

5.2.3 Development Roadmap for GEI··········································································· 105

5.3 Building GEI Offers a Systematic Solution for Biodiversity Protection ····················111

5.3.1 Radically Addressing Climate Change ································································ 112

5.3.2 Fully Controlling Environmental Pollution ···························································· 115

5.3.3 Dramatically Reducing Habitat Loss···································································· 120

5.3.4 Effectively Promoting the Sustainable Use of Biological Resources·················· 127

5.3.5 Vigorously Promoting Ecological Restoration ····················································· 130

Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI···············135

6.1 Plan for Promoting GEI-based Climate Governance ···············································136

6.1.1 Accelerate Reduction of Emissions during Energy Production·························· 137

6.1.2 Accelerate Emissions Reduction during Energy Consumption·························· 151

6.1.3 Actively Implement Negative Emissions Measures············································· 156

VIII

6.2 Plans for Promotion of Environmental Governance Based on GEI ·························157

6.2.1 Accelerating the Phasing out of Fossil Fuels······················································· 158

6.2.2 Advocate Green Energy Use················································································ 163

6.2.3 Promote Clean Treatment of Pollutants······························································· 167

6.3 Plans for Habitat Protection Based on GEI ·····························································168

6.3.1 Accelerate the Development of High-Efficiency Ecological Agriculture············· 168

6.3.2 Accelerate Energy, Transportation and Information Networks (ETI)

Integration············································································································· 169

6.3.3 Accelerate Micro-Grid on Islands ········································································ 174

6.4 Plans for Promoting Sustainable Use of Biological Resources Based on GEI········175

6.4.1 Replace Firewood with Electricity to Reduce Deforestation······························· 175

6.4.2 Reduce Food Waste via Electric Refrigeration···················································· 176

6.4.3 Reduce Consumption of Biological Resources via Electrosynthesis of

Raw Materials······································································································· 177

6.4.4 Promote Ecological Poverty Alleviation via Upgrading the Industrial Chain ······ 177

6.5 Plans for Promoting Ecological Restoration and Emergency Protection Based

on GEI······················································································································178

6.5.1 Accelerate the Application of “Electricity-Water-Land-Forest”··························· 178

6.5.2 Promote Dynamic Biodiversity Monitoring Systems··········································· 179

6.5.3 Improve Wildlife Emergency Protection Capabilities ·········································· 180

6.6 Innovation Plan for Key Biodiversity Promotion Technology Based on GEI············183

6.6.1 Accelerate Technological Innovation in Clean Power Generation······················ 183

6.6.2 Accelerate Innovation in Clean Power Distribution············································· 185

6.6.3 Speed up Technological Innovation in Electricity Replacement························· 186

6.6.4 Accelerate Technological Innovation in Electrosynthesis of Fuels and Raw

Materials ··············································································································· 188

6.6.5 Accelerate innovation in CCUS technology ························································ 189

6.7 GEI Provides an Excellent Tool for Promotion of Biodiversity Protection················191

Supporting Mechanisms and Outlook···············································································193

7

7.1 Key Mechanisms for Biodiversity Conservation via GEI··········································194

7.1.1 Planning and Coordination Mechanism ······························································ 195

7.1.2 Policy Support Mechanism·················································································· 195

7.1.3 Financial Investment Mechanism ········································································ 196

7.1.4 International Cooperation Mechanism ································································ 196

7.1.5 Capacity Building Mechanism ············································································· 197

7.2 Future Outlook and Proposals·················································································198

IX

| Figure Contents

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7

Figure 1.8

Statistics About Global Biodiversity··········································································003

The Speciation of the Arctic Fox and the Gray Fox ··················································004

Biodiversity: A Source for a Great Variety of Food····················································005

A Diagram of the Circulation of Substances on Earth···············································010

The Transpiration of Plants Maintains a Balance in Water Circulation······················013

Pollination by Insects·································································································014

A Schematic Diagram of a Biological Chain······························································015

A Schematic Diagram of Carbon Sequestration in Forest and Marine

Ecosystems ···············································································································016

Biodiversity Helps Ensure Food Security ··································································018

Figure 1.9

Figure 1.10 Biodiversity and Human Health and Wellbeing ·························································019

Figure 1.11 The Remains of Babylon Civilization ·········································································021

Figure 1.12 The Stages of Human Civilization··············································································021

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6

Figure 2.7

Figure 2.8

Figure 2.9

Recently Extinct Species···························································································025

Species Extinction Risk Overview·············································································025

Overview of Species Extinction·················································································027

The Earth’s Five Mass Extinction Events···································································028

Ecosystem Living Planet Index··················································································029

Decreases in Forest Area···························································································030

Wetland Area Reductions··························································································031

Coral Reef Bleaching·································································································032

Livestock and Poultry Species’ Extinction Risk ························································034

Figure 2.10 United Nations Biodiversity Framework····································································036

Figure 2.11 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020·································································037

Figure 2.12 Implementation of Aichi Biodiversity Targets ····························································038

Figure 2.13 Spreading Impact of Biodiversity Loss······································································039

Figure 2.14 Changes in Nature’s Contributions to People ···························································039

Figure 2.15 Development of National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans··························041

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

How human activities cause biodiversity loss···························································045

Regional causes of deforestation 2000-2010····························································047

X

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 4.5

Figure 4.6

Figure 4.7

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.9

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Unsustainable Energy Development Affects Biodiversity·········································070

Breakdown of Global Greenhouse Gas and CO₂Emissions, 2019 ··························071

Global CO₂Emissions, Total & Breakdown, 1850-2019 ···········································072

Sectoral Global CO₂Emissions, 2019·······································································072

Global Fossil Energy Consumption and CO₂Emissions, 2015·································072

Emissions and Sources of the World’s Three Major Pollutants, 2015 ······················079

Emission Factors and Source Shares for Three Major Air Pollutants, 2015 ·············079

Global Water Consumption by Energy Industry, 2016··············································084

Food Waste by World Region ···················································································087

Increases in Global Installed Solar and Wind Power Generation Capacity ··············092

Technological Revolutions’ Contributions to Energy Utilization Efficiency ···············093

Current Proportions of Renewable Energy Consumption and Generation

Installed Capacity, Worldwide···················································································094

Electricity Share in Global End-Use Energy······························································095

GEI’s Structure··········································································································097

Diagram of the Smart Grid System···········································································098

Comparison of UHV and EHV AC/DC Transmission Technologies···························098

Global Clean Energy Resource Distribution and Reserves·······································099

Five Core Features of GEI·························································································099

Figure 5.4

Figure 5.5

Figure 5.6

Figure 5.7

Figure 5.8

Figure 5.9

Figure 5.10 Two Replacements, One Increase, One Restore and One Conversion ····················101

Figure 5.11 The Development of Global Primary Energy Consumption ······································106

Figure 5.12 The Development of the Global Mix of Installed Power Generation Capacity··········106

Figure 5.13 The Development of Global Energy Consumption····················································107

Figure 5.14 Forecast of the Proportion of Global Electricity Demand in Final Energy

Consumption·············································································································108

Figure 5.15 GEI Backbone Grid Network·····················································································109

Figure 5.16 A Correlation Model of GEI and Biodiversity Protection···········································112

Figure 5.17 The GEI Path for Emissions Reduction·····································································113

Figure 5.18 An Investment Comparison of GEI and Other Schemes ··········································114

Figure 5.19 The Benefits of GEI-Based Emissions Reduction·····················································114

Figure 5.20 GEI Reduces Coal and Oil Demand··········································································119

Figure 5.21 SO₂and NO_xEmissions by 2050··············································································122

Figure 5.22 GEI Alleviates Habitat Loss·······················································································125

Figure 5.23 GEI Promotes Desert Land Governance···································································130

Figure 5.24 GEI Creates a New Model of Desert Governance ····················································132

Figure 5.25 GEI Reduces Biological Invasion··············································································134

Figure 6.1

Six Action Plans for GEI-based Biodiversity Promotion ···········································136

XI

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

Figure 6.7

Figure 6.8

Figure 6.9

End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, Asia················································152

End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, Europe···········································153

End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, Africa ·············································153

End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, North America ·······························154

End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, Central and South America···········155

End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, Oceania ·········································156

Primary Energy Projections by Type, plus Demand, Asia··········································158

Primary Energy Projections, by Type, plus Demand, Europe····································159

Figure 6.10 Primary Energy Projections by Type, plus Demand, Africa ·······································160

Figure 6.11 Primary Energy Projections by Type, plus Demand, North America ·························160

Figure 6.12 Primary Energy Projections by Type, plus Demand, Central and South America ·····161

Figure 6.13 Primary Energy Projections by Type, plus Demand, Oceania ···································161

Figure 6.14 Key Technology for Promoting Biodiversity Based on GEI ·······································183

Figure 6.15 Electric Vehicles’ “Three Power Technologies” ·························································187

Figure 6.16 CCUS Technical Processes and Classifications························································190

Figure 7.1

GEI’s Key Biodiversity Conservation Mechanisms····················································194

XII

Table Contents |

Table 5.1

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 6.3

Table 6.4

Table 6.5

Table 6.6

Table 6.7

Table 6.8

Table 6.9

Food Freshness Lifetime at Varied Temperatures·······················································128

Information on Large-scale PV Power Plants in Asia··················································137

Information on Large-scale Wind Power Plants in Asia··············································139

Information on Large-scale Wind Power Plants in Europe ·········································141

Information on Large-scale PV Plants in Africa ··························································143

Information on Large-scale Wind Power plants in Africa············································144

Information on Large-scale PV Power Plants in North America ·································146

Information on Large-scale Wind Power plants in North America······························146

Information on Large-scale PV plants in Central and South America ························148

Information on Large-scale Wind Power plants in Central and South America ·········149

Table 6.10 Information on Large-scale PV Plants in Oceania ······················································150

Table 6.11 Information on Large-scale Wind Power plants in Oceania········································150

XIII

| Column Contents

Column 1-1

Column 1-2

Column 1-3

Column 1-4

Column 1-5

Column 2-1

Column 2-2

Column 3-1

Column 3-2

Column 3-3

Column 3-4

Column 4-1

Column 4-2

Column 4-3

Column 4-4

Column 4-5

Column 4-6

Column 4-7

Column 4-8

Column 4-9

Biopharmaceutics ···································································································006

Major Industries Using Organisms as Raw Materials ·············································007

Bionic Technology···································································································009

Ten Trees That Can Purify the Air············································································011

The Human–Nature Relationship Affects Human Health ········································019

Extinction Risk Assessment Methods·····································································026

The Great Barrier Reef Ecosystem··········································································033

Impact of Deforestation on Biodiversity··································································047

Impact of Grasslands Desertification Control on Biodiversity in Inner Mongolia····049

Impact of Establishment of Marine Conservation Areas on Biodiversity················051

Power Scarcity and Forest Resource Consumption in Africa·································053

Environmental Pollution Caused by Coal Mining, South Africa ······························074

Environmental Pollution Due to Exploitation of Marcellus Shale, United States ····074

Environmental Pollution Caused by Tar Sands Mining, Alberta, Canada ···············076

“Deepwater Horizon” Drilling Rig Oil Spill, Gulf of Mexico, United States··············077

Nuclear Accident, Fukushima, Japan ·····································································078

Acid Rain in Europe·································································································080

Smog’s Effects on Crop Growth ·············································································081

Water and Soil Erosion, Huainan Mining Area, China ·············································082

Oil and Gas Pipeline Network Construction Caused Habitat Fragmentation,

Nigeria·····················································································································083

Column 4-10 Coal Industry Exacerbates Global Fresh Water Crisis ············································085

Column 4-11 Ballast Water Causes Biological Invasion·······························································087

Column 5-1

Column 5-2

Column 5-3

Column 5-4

Column 5-5

China Energy Interconnection Helps to Control Air Pollution ·································116

Biomass Power Generation ····················································································118

Garbage Transfer Stations ······················································································119

Waste Heat from Coastal Power Plants Threatens Marine Ecosystems ················121

Co-development of Electricity-mining-metallurgy-industry-trade Promotes

Diversified Industrial Development··········································································123

XIV

Column 5-6

Environmental Assessment of Belo Monte Hydropower UHV DC Transmission

Project Phase II·······································································································126

Electrosynthesis of Methane, Methanol and Protein··············································129

PV Desertification Control in Inner Mongolia, China ··············································131

Electricity-water-land-forest Development Model and Its Application···················132

Prospects for the Development of Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage ········157

Timetable for Coal Power and Fossil Fuel Vehicle Phase Out································162

Prospects for Green Hydrogen Energy Development ············································166

“Sewage Treatment + PV Power Generation” Project, Zhengzhou, China·············167

New “Clean Energy + Vertical Agriculture” Model··················································169

Significance and Value of ETI Integration·······························································170

ETI Integration Promotes Biological Habitat Protection·········································172

Island Micro-grids and Island Habitat Protection···················································174

Remarkable Results for “Replacement of Diesel with Electricity” in China’s

Column 5-7

Column 5-8

Column 5-9

Column 6-1

Column 6-2

Column 6-3

Column 6-4

Column 6-5

Column 6-6

Column 6-7

Column 6-8

Column 6-9

Western Fujian Villages···························································································176

Column 6-10 Development of Global Cold Chain Logistics for Fresh Agricultural Products·······176

Column 6-11 China’s Remarkable “PV-based Poverty Alleviation” Results ································178

Column 6-12 The Electricity-Water-Land-Forest Development Model and Its Application ·········179

Column 6-13 Ecological Monitoring Assists in Protection of Elephant Herd ·······························179

Column 6-14 Clean Energy Helps Protect Endangered Animals ·················································181

Column 6-15 Clean Energy Helps Ensure Drinking Water Quality for Wildlife ·····························182

XV

XVI

1

The Significance of Biodiversity

1

The Significance of Biodiversity

001

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

Biodiversity is the living fabric of our planet and the foundation of human life. It

fundamentally supports ecological balance and food security, and it serves as

the basis for sustainable economic and social development. Protecting

biodiversity, responding to climate change and governing the ecological

environment are the international community’s three priorities. At the moment,

biodiversity is under serious threat, and all countries must therefore shoulder the

responsibility to protect it and ensure the sustainable use of biological resources.

On September 30, 2020, President Xi Jinping addressed the United Nations

Summit on Biodiversity, saying, “Ecological Civilization: Building a Shared Future

for All Life on Earth, which is the theme of next year’s Biodiversity Conference in

Kunming, embodies humanity’s hope for a better future.” A deep understanding

of the notion and significance of biodiversity is essential for the further

restoration of biodiversity and the promotion of ecosystem balance as well as a

coordinated relationship between economic development and environmental

protection.

1.1 The Meaning of Biodiversity

The term biodiversity was first put forward by British biologists Ronald Fisher and Carrington

Bonsor Willams after studying the multi-dimensional relationships among insect species in

1943. Their definition of the term referenced the characteristics or attributes of communities.

With the development of biological disciplines, the concept of biodiversity has been enriched.

According to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted at the United Nations Conference

on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992, biodiversity is defined as the variability

among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic

ecosystems, as well as the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes species

diversity, ecosystem diversity and genetic diversity.

Species diversity is defined as the number and relative abundance of different species present

in a community. It is an important indicator of biological abundance in an area, and it is also a

key topic of research for the scale, evolution and sustainable utilization of species. Over the

past half century, biologists have arrived at different Figures for the total number of earth’s

species based on different methods. Currently, according to the official statistics of the United

Nations, there are approximately 8.7 million species worldwide. Other estimates suggest that

the number of species worldwide may range from 10 million to 100 million. Data about global

species is shown in Figure 1.1.

Ecosystem diversity is defined as variation in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems over the whole

planet or in a specific region — including mountains, forests, oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands,

002

1

The Significance of Biodiversity

grasslands and deserts — that can affect species’ physiological characteristics, behavior and

distribution, among other aspects.

Figure 1.1 Statistics About Global Biodiversity^A

Genetic diversity is defined as the genetic variability present within or between species. It

represents the sum of various genetic variations of all organisms on earth and is a key tool for

revealing the rules of evolution, geographical differentiation and species formation.

Biodiversity is formed as a result of the coordinated evolution of organisms and environments.

Through long-term interaction, mutual relationships between organisms and their environments

form to maintain ecosystem balance. As new species split from old species and come into

being, biodiversity is created. This process includes two main stages. One consists of gene

mutation (or restructuring), which provides raw materials for speciation, and the other is natural

selection, which is a leading factor for evolution. In addition, geographic isolation is a

prerequisite. For example, the Arctic Fox and the Gray Fox are two different species that

formed from a fox population living in North America as a result of geographical isolation and

long-term exposure to different environments as they spread to the north and south,

respectively, as shown in Figure 1.2.

The distribution of biodiversity follows regular patterns. The spatial distribution of biodiversity is

affected by the ecological environment. Vegetation types vary from climatic zone to climatic

zone (a horizontal pattern). But even in the same geographical area, the distribution of

vegetation also changes vertically (a vertical pattern) due to the effect of altitude. Overall,

terrestrial biodiversity decreases from the tropics to the polar regions (from the equator to the

two poles), from low-altitude areas to high-altitude areas, and from areas suffering more severe

droughts to areas suffering less severe droughts. Marine biodiversity, on the other hand,

increases from nearshore areas to the oceans and from the polar regions to tropical oceans in

__________

ASource: WWF, Living Planet Report, 2020.

003

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

terms of horizontal distribution, and it is high at both the surface and bottom of the ocean but

low in the middle (resembling an hour glass in terms of vertical distribution). The temporal

evolution of biodiversity is affected by seasonal variations. Temperature and precipitation vary

from season to season and from environment to environment. In temperate and polar regions,

cold and warm seasons dominate, whereas in tropical and subtropical regions, wet and dry

seasons dominate. Therefore, biodiversity varies by time. For example, the biodiversity of forest

vegetation, especially of herbaceous plants, which flourish in spring and wither in autumn,

varies greatly from season to season.

Arctic Fox: Found in the northern part of North America, it has thick fur, short ears, short legs and

a short nose, and it is adapted to cold climates. Its white fur serves as useful camouflage

Gray Fox: Found in the southern part of North America, it has thin fur, long ears, long legs and

a long nose, which is conducive to heat dissipation and has adapted it to hot climates

Figure 1.2 The Speciation of the Arctic Fox and the Gray Fox

1.2 Biodiversity as an Essential Basis for Economic and Social Development

Biodiversity is the reason why we can have a great variety of food. There are about 80000

edible plants in the world, of which more than 6000 are domesticated food crops. At present,

nine varieties, such as wheat, rice, corn and potatoes, have been cultivated on a large scale

with an annual output of more than two billion tons, accounting for about two thirds of the

004

1

The Significance of Biodiversity

world’s total food output. There are more than 40 kinds of livestock and poultry, such as

domesticated cattle, sheep, pigs, chickens and ducks, and there are more than ten kinds of

freshwater fish, providing 95% of the meat products consumed by mankind. As shown in Figure

1.3, these domesticated organisms constitute the foundation of modern agriculture. Wildlife is

an important supplement to human food. About 1160 kinds of wild plants have become food

sources for humans. A total of 90 million to 100 million tons of wild fish are caught each year. In

some regions of Africa, wild animals account for 20% to 75% of local meat consumption.

Figure 1.3 Biodiversity: A Source for a Great Variety of Food^A

Biodiversity is the reason why we can have a great variety of drugs. Before the modern

pharmaceutical industry developed, almost all drugs came from animals and plants. For

example, China began using wild organisms as medicines thousands of years ago, and more

than 5000 medicinal plants, including 1700 common ones, have been recorded. Four billion

people around the world still primarily depend on natural drugs, including about 80% and over

40% of the populations of developing and developed countries, respectively. The

advancement of pharmaceutical technology has enabled synthetic drugs, but their raw

materials are still mostly derived from wildlife. For example, 25% of the drugs developed by the

United States contain natural plant components. There is a wide range of wildlife species, but

only a few have been studied in depth. Some of these unstudied organisms might have

components that are effective against human diseases.

__________

ASource: WWF, Living Planet Report, 2020.

005

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

Column 1-1

Biopharmaceutics

Biopharmaceutics refers to the technologies used to manufacture drugs following

microbiological, chemical, biochemical, biotechnological and pharmic principles. Their

main raw materials include natural biological materials, including microorganisms, the

human body, animals, plants and marine organisms, as shown in Figure 1. Antibiotics

such as erythromycin, jiemycin, penicillin, streptomycin and gentamicin all come from

microorganisms.

Figure 1 Biopharmaceutics

Biopharmaceutics are characterized by their high pharmacological activity, slight toxicity,

side effects and high nutritional value. More than 50% of drugs around the world are

manufactured through biopharmaceutical technologies and are widely used to treat

diseases such as cancer, AIDS, coronary heart disease, anemia, maldevelopment and

diabetes.

Biodiversity is the reason why we can have diverse industrial raw materials. Biological

products contribute to 40% of the global economy, and organisms are a vital source of

raw materials for many industries involving food, medicine, chemicals and

manufacturing. Fiber, rubber, wood, dye, feed, oil, charcoal, fertilizer and wax, among

other substances, are primarily derived from plants, whereas grease, fuel, fur, leather,

natural silk, feathers and the like are derived from animals. Microorganisms are used for

the large-scale production of substances such as enzyme preparations, organic

solvents, alcohol, amino acids, vitamins and bacterial fertilizers. And according to

statistics, about 75000 kinds of biological resources are used as industrial raw materials

worldwide.

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Column 1-2

Major Industries Using Organisms as Raw Materials

The textile industry is an industrial sector that processes natural and chemical fibers into

a variety of yarns, silk, threads, strips and fabrics, as well as dyed and finished products,

as shown in Figure 1. Its raw materials are mostly natural fibers from natural or cultivated

plants and animals. Cotton and hemp are the majority of such plants fibers, whereas

wool and silk make up the majority of animal-based fibers. With the rapid increase in

synthetic fiber production in recent years, the textile industry has seen great changes to

its raw materials composition. But at present, natural fibers still account for half of total

textile fiber production.

Figure 1 Textile Industry

The food industry is an industrial sector that uses agricultural and sideline products as

raw materials to make food through physical processing or fermentation. Its main fields

include food and feed processing, vegetable oil processing, meat and egg processing,

and aquatic product processing. In addition, its main activity is to transform primary

biological products from agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishery and sideline

foods into high-value foods that meet peoples’ daily needs and improve their quality of

life.

The rubber industry is an industrial sector that uses natural and synthetic rubber as its

main raw material. Additives, bones and others materials serve as auxiliary materials to

produce a variety of rubber products, as shown in Figure 2. Specifically, natural rubber

mainly comes from latex, which grows on rubber trees and contributes to 46% of total

global rubber consumption. There are over approximately 50000 kinds of rubber

products worldwide, all of which have been extensively used in automobiles, electronics,

aerospace, medicine, building materials and daily life.

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Figure 2 Rubber Industry

The wood industry is an industrial sector that produces machined or chemically

processed wood products by comprehensively making use of timber resources while

maintaining the basic properties of wood. Its main products include furniture, paper,

packaging, vehicles, ships, artificial boards, plywood, building components and other

wood products. In 2018, the world’s total wood consumption reached 341 million m³, and

roughly 75% of this total came from China, the United States, Canada and European

countries.

Biodiversity supports scientific and technological innovation. Many species have unique

functions and advantageous abilities and thus play an irreplaceable role in driving scientific

and technological progress. For example, bionics allows military scientists to design weapons

that cannot be created without the abundance and wonder of the biological world. Planes,

ships and submarines are the result of imitating birds, fish and dolphins, respectively, and

rocket propulsion was inspired by the jet-like principle of jellyfish and cuttlefish. In another

example, biodiversity encourages humankind to transform animal and plant varieties, greatly

boosting the development of modern agricultural science. China has maximized the

advantages of wild rice in terms of disease and drought resistance, and it has successfully

cultivated super hybridized rice. By hybridizing wild rice with farmed rice, hardy genes were

introduced, and a new variety was created. Since then, rice output in the country has increased

remarkably, with China’s annual yield per mu (about 0.067 hectares) exceeding 1000 kg,

representing a significant improvement in agricultural productivity.

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Column 1-3

Bionic Technology

Bionic technology is an advanced technology that studies organisms, biological structures

and the principles of their function to develop and improve machinery, instruments,

building structures and technical processes. As a kind of comprehensive technology

that integrates biology and engineering, it can be divided into structural bionics,

functional bionics, material bionics, mechanical bionics and other types of bionics.

Structural bionics constructs mechanical devices similar to organisms or parts of them to

realize similar structures and thus similar functions. For example, a Scottish technology

company developed the i-Limb bionic hand structure. So far, thousands of patients have

installed this structure worldwide, as shown in Figure 1(a).

Functional bionics is a type of bionic technology that is based on structural bionics and

that enables artificial machinery to realize advanced functions such as thinking,

perception and motion. For example, radar was developed when scientists found that

the ultrasonic waves sent by bats reflect off the obstacles they encounter, as shown in

Figure 1(b).

(a) A Bionic Hand

(b) Radar

Figure 1 Application Examples of Bionic Technology

Material bionics consists of a type of bionic technology that studies and imitates the

organizational structures, chemical compositions, colors and ecological functions of

organisms to design and manufacture new materials. For example, in construction

projects, people drew inspiration from the honeycomb when trying to decrease the dead

weight of reinforced concrete and thus reduce costs. As such, they invented

honeycombed concrete, which is light weight, has a low elasticity and offers good shock

absorption.

Mechanical bionics consists of a type of bionic technology that studies the static and

kinematic characteristics of the fine structures of organisms. For example, Germany’s

Festo company successfully developed its Bionic Handling Assistant, which can

simulate the smooth handling of an overweight load by an elephant’s trunk.

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1.3 Biodiversity as a Solid Basis for Building a Shared Future for All Life

on Earth

As important members on earth, plants, animals and microorganisms coexist with and depend

on and influence each other in the food web (chains). In addition, they interact with factors

such as air, water, soil, temperature and airflow. These couplings are built on biodiversity. They

connect all life on earth closely and create conditions for the survival, reproduction and

evolution of everything. They also help maintain the dynamic balance of ecosystems and

shape a shared future for all life on earth, enabling the circulation of substances and the flow of

energy, as shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 A Diagram of the Circulation of Substances on Earth

1.3.1 Biodiversity Provides a Favorable Environment for the Harmonious Coexistence

of Organisms

Biodiversity helps purify the air. Natural vegetation, especially forests, releases oxygen and

absorbs harmful substances through photosynthesis. When 1 kg of dry material is produced,

3110 m³of air is filtered, 1.63 kg of CO₂is sequestered, and 1.19 kg of oxygen is released.

Meanwhile, toxic gases such as sulfur dioxide, hydrogen fluoride and ammonia can be

removed from the atmosphere. For example, a forest can absorb 3–6 tons of sulfur dioxide and

0.3–2 tons of fluoride per hectare every year. According to statistics, dust falls (containing

smoke, carbon particles, lead, mercury and other components) can reach 500–1000 tons per

km²every year in many industrial cities in the world. Some plants’ leaves have rough surfaces

covered by tomentum, resulting in their strong dust collection and retention ability. For example,

a pine forest and a fir forest can absorb 36 tons and 32 tons of dust per hectare every year,

respectively.

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Column 1-4

Ten Trees That Can Purify the Air

Pinus massoniana is an evergreen Pinaceae species whose leaves and trunks can

secrete pine resin that oxidizes easily. Throughout this process, low-concentration ozone

that can clean the air and prevent and absorb dust is released. A mature pine tree can

absorb tons of dust every year.

Cypress is an evergreen Cupressaceae species that can absorb toxic gases in the

atmosphere, such as sulfur dioxide and chlorine, and is well-paired with refineries and

factories producing drugs, chemical fibers, plastic and the like, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Cypress

Ginkgo is a deciduous Ginkgoaceae species. In addition to being one of the world’s five

famous ornamental trees, it boasts a strong ability to absorb dust and harmful gases

such as sulfur dioxide, and it is suitable for roadside and courtyard landscaping, as

shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Ginkgo

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The Chinese scholar tree is a deciduous Leguminosae species with straight trunks and

dense branches. Its twigs and leaves can combat harmful gases such as sulfur dioxide,

and they can secrete bacteriocin to kill bacteria within a certain range.

Black locust is a deciduous Leguminosae species with a strong ability to combat sulfur

dioxide, chlorine gas and photo-chemical smog. It also has a strong ability to absorb

lead vapor.

Ulmus pumila is a deciduous Ulmaceae species that can absorb toxic gases such as

sulfur dioxide, chlorine and fluorine. It also has a strong capacity for dust retention. Its

leaves can absorb more than ten grams of dust per square meter.

The tree of heaven is a deciduous Simaroubaceae species with a strong ability to

combat harmful gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, chlorine gas and nitric

acid mist. As such, it is an excellent tree for purifying the air.

Chinaberry tree is a deciduous Meliaceae species that can absorb harmful gases such

as sulfur dioxide and hydrogen fluoride. In addition, it can prevent and control twelve

kinds of serious agricultural pests, thus earning it the “plant insecticide” nickname.

Ligustrum lucidum is an Oleaceae species. It has a strong ability to combat sulfur

dioxide and chlorine gas, and it also strongly absorbs dust. Its leaves can absorb six

grams of dust per square meter.

The paper mulberry is a Moraceae species. It has a strong ability to combat acid and

nitrogen oxides, and it can be used as a greening tree in areas suffering from severe air

pollution.

Biodiversity facilitates water conservation. Well-developed vegetation can regulate rainfall and

runoff and can play a critical role in preventing flooding, buffering against drought and

maintaining water quality. Plant roots grow deep into the soil, and microorganisms can loosen

the soil to form voids, making the soil more permeable to rainwater and more capable of

retaining water, thus effectively reducing the risk of flooding. For example, in the forest

ecosystem, 15% to 30% of natural rainfall is intercepted by tree canopies, and 50% to 80% is

absorbed by above-ground organisms and forest soil. This rainfall is released slowly after the

rain stops, which can thus adjust river flows during floods and dry seasons. It is estimated that

500–3000 m³of water can be saved per hectare of forest, making a 2000-hectare forest

equivalent to a reservoir with a storage capacity of 1 million m³.

Biodiversity protects the soil. Ecosystems help hold soil and prevent soil erosion, land infertility

and landslides. Mulching soil with dead branches and leaves not only improves soil structure

but also increases surface roughness and reduces the washing of soil by rainwater. Also, as

tree canopies intercept precipitation and as tree roots grow deep into the ground, surface

runoff is slowed down, and the degree by which precipitation infiltrates the soil is increased.

Therefore, compared with a bare surface, water flows slower and more stably across forested

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soil, with plant roots and fungal hyphae consolidating soil particles. All these factors help

reduce the occurrence and intensity of soil erosion, maintain land productivity, prevent natural

disasters such as land collapse, debris flows and landslides, and prevent the siltation of lakes,

rivers and reservoirs.

Biodiversity helps regulate the climate. Ecosystems significantly contribute to regulating

climatic conditions such as temperature, precipitation and airflow. For example, forests with a

large canopy cover can provide shade and create a “green thermostat” between the ground

and the atmosphere. As a result, forests make the habitat warm in winter and cool in summer,

as well as warm by night and cool by day. Specifically, summer temperatures in forested areas

are 3–4 ℃ lower than in non-forested areas, and winter temperatures in forested areas are

1–2 ℃ higher than in non-forested areas. In addition, vegetation also participates in the

natural water cycle through transpiration — water vapor evaporates from plant leaves into the

atmosphere and returns to the ground through precipitation, thus maintaining regional

precipitation balance and preventing extremely dry climates, as shown in Figure 1.5. In recent

years, the rapid decline of vegetation in the Amazon basin of South America and in western

Africa has led to annually decreasing precipitation, colder winters and hotter summers, as well

as a marked surge in extreme weather in the areas thus concerned.

Figure 1.5 The Transpiration of Plants Maintains a Balance in Water Circulation

1.3.2 Biodiversity Provides Necessary Conditions for the Reproduction and Evolution

of Species

Biodiversity supports reproductive success. Interactions of organisms and between organisms

and environments help maintain their survival and reproduction. For example, the transfer of

pollen by animals such as insects can promote fruiting, as shown in Figure 1.6. A total of 75%

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of the world’s main crops and 80% of its flowering plants depend on animals for pollination.

These crops provide most of the world’s food; 15% of them are pollinated by domesticated

bees, and about 80% are pollinated by wild bees and other wild animals. In addition, about

73% of the world’s cultivated crops, such as pumpkins, cocoa, the cashew nut, blueberries and

cranberries are pollinated by bees (60%), flies (19%), bats (6.5%), beetles (5%), birds (4%),

butterflies and moths (4%) and other animals (1.5%).^A

Figure 1.6 Pollination by Insects

Biodiversity helps sustain evolution. Genetic diversity provides the basis for the evolution and

adaptation of species. Since not every population of a species has the genes to survive in a

particular environment, the species’ gene pool will become narrower once its population is

sharply reduced or its distribution becomes fragmented. In such cases, its population is prone

to phenomena such as inbreeding and an inability to evolve due to the loss of variability,

making extinction a likely consequence of populations faced with great external pressures. For

example, during the early 20th century, about 500000 rhinos inhabited Africa and Asia, but

after decades of hunting and habitat loss, the number of rhinos plummeted to 29000. Many

rhino populations had to inbreed, resulting in genetic defects such as poor vision and infertility.

In 2011 and 2019, the black rhinoceros and the Sumatran rhinoceros living in western Africa

were declared extinct. Worse still, these rhinos are only a fraction of the large animals

threatened by extinction due to declining numbers.

1.3.3 Biodiversity Provides a Fundamental Guarantee for the Stability of Ecosystems

Biodiversity helps enrich global food chains. A food chain is a chain-like structure formed

between organisms in an ecosystem based on predator–prey relationships (food relationships),

as shown in Figure 1.7. The food chain starting from plants and extending to large carnivores

__________

ASource: Wang Kanglin and Li Lianfang, Introduction to Biodiversity, Beijing: Science Press, 2019.

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helps maintain balance in nature. The shrinking or extinction of any particular type of wildlife

population can thus cause ecological imbalance. A greater biodiversity corresponds to a

greater diversity of food chains between different species. As these food chains are closely

linked, an intertwined and intricate food web is formed, thus giving ecosystems more ways to

maintain stability, as well as a stronger regulatory ability in the face of environmental

disturbances and stresses.

Figure 1.7 A Schematic Diagram of a Biological Chain

Biodiversity helps improve resilience to invasive alien species. Throughout long-term evolution,

each species — as an organic part of an ecosystem — has its role in the food chain of its native

habitat. This is a mutual relationship that confines the scope of the habitat and the range of a

population size, thereby establishing a relatively stable ecosystem. In some areas with limited

variety and a low number of species, the interactions between species are onefold; in other

cases, native species may fail to fully use local ecological resources. Once alien species

invade these areas, they are likely to become dominant populations due to a lack of natural

enemies or competitors, and thus they pose a great threat to local ecosystem stability, as they

crowd out native species and reproduce rapidly. Studies have shown that places with greater

biodiversity have a stronger resistance to invasion by alien species within the same community

structure.^AFor example, continental and tropical ecosystems are more resistant to invasion

than the ecosystems of islands and temperate regions.

__________

ASource: Huang Hongjuan, Invasive Alien Species and the Diversity of Species, Chinese Journal of Ecology,

Volume 23, 2004.

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1.4 Biodiversity as a Major Pillar for Sustainable World Development

On its path toward sustainable development, the world faces major challenges such as climate

change, environmental pollution, hunger, disease and terrestrial and marine ecosystem loss.

Biodiversity, with its strong built-in ability for self-regulation and restoration, can play a

significant role in tackling these challenges through a nature-based approach.

Biodiversity helps mitigate climate change. Land and oceans are important carbon sinks on

earth, sequstering a total of about 5.6 billion tons of carbon every year, or around 17% of global

carbon emissions. Terrestrial ecosystems store carbon mainly through forests, swamps and

peatland. For example, a lush forest can absorb about one ton of CO₂per hectare per day. The

photosynthesis of marine organisms (mainly algae) and dissolution in seawater are how marine

ecosystems sequester carbon. So far, terrestrial ecosystems store about 2.85 trillion tons of

carbon (2.3 trillion tons and 0.55 trillion tons by soil and terrestrial plants, respectively). Marine

ecosystems store about 38 trillion tons, and the atmosphere stores about 0.8 trillion tons, as

shown in Figure 1.8. In addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions from energy, industry,

transportation, construction, agriculture and other sectors, it is also essential that global carbon

emissions be offset through natural carbon sinks in ecosystems, thereby addressing climate

change.

Note: Figures in brackets refer to the carbon pools stored, and those in red represent the carbon emitted

by humans in billions of tons per year.

Figure 1.8 A Schematic Diagram of Carbon Sequestration in Forest and Marine Ecosystems

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Biodiversity helps reduce environmental pollution. Ecosystems can decompose and sequester

a large amount of urban and rural waste, as well as pollutants from industrial, mining and

agricultural activities, including sewage, heavy metals and pesticides. For example, some

microorganisms can purify sewage via metabolism, primarily by converting organic

water-based pollutants into easily degradable intermediates through enzyme catalysis, which

are then turned into CO₂, water and inorganic salts.^AIn another example, mycorrhiza is a

symbiotic association between a green plant and a fungus that can promote the concentration

of heavy metal ions in plants, thus transferring and storing heavy metals in soil. Plants such as

algae, duckweed and houseleek can extensively absorb iron, zinc, copper and other mineral

elements in the environment, and they can absorb 100% of manganese. At present, more than

10000 types of chemicals worldwide are continuously discharged into the natural environment,

and 75% of them can be treated via bio-degradation.

Biodiversity helps end global hunger. Biodiversity helps conserve water, protect soil, prevent

climate change, combat environmental pollution and reduce the frequency and intensity of

floods, droughts, typhoons, acid rain and other disasters, thus creating a good environment for

food production, as shown in Figure 1.9. Species-rich ecosystems can use mutual restriction to

protect and improve crop productivity. For example, birds are natural enemies of many

agricultural pests, and most farmland pests can be eaten by birds in areas with good

biodiversity. Moreover, both wild and clonal plants are important resources for human food

security. According to the Sustainable Development Goals Report 2018 by the United Nations,

populations suffering long-term undernourishment exceeded 800 million in 2016, mainly as a

result of environmental degradation and reduced biodiversity.

Biodiversity helps promote human health. Biodiversity safeguards human health by ensuring

ecosystem services (including the provision of food, clean water, clean air and drugs, as well

as the regulation of temperature, the regulation of precipitation and the mitigation of the impact

of natural disasters), enhancing the health of microbial communities in the human body,

reducing the risk of transmission of infectious diseases and improving mental health, as shown

in Figure 1.10. For example, microorganisms are indispensable to the human digestive system,

as they not only promote the absorption of nutrients but also prevent and contain pathogenic

invasion while helping the human body better adapt to new environments. Biodiversity loss can

lead to an increased risk of infectious disease epidemics. For example, in the Amazon basin,

malaria prevalence rose by 50% due to a substantial increase in mosquitoes, which are

intermediate hosts for malaria, as man-made deforestation reduced forest coverage there by

4%.^BAccording to research by the World Health Organization, people who enjoy frequent

exposure to nature are less prone to suffer certain diseases and diseases of maladaptation,

especially psychological diseases such as severe depression and anxiety.

__________

ASource: Huang Yi and Jiang Xueyan, The Contribution of Mycorrhizal Fungi to the Biodegradation of POPs in

Soil, Soil and Environmental Sciences, 2002.

BSource: Li Binbin, Creating Synergy Between Biodiversity Protection and Human Health, Biodiversity

Science, Volume 28, 2020.

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Figure 1.9 Biodiversity Helps Ensure Food Security^A

__________

ASource: FAO, The State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture, 2019.

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Figure 1.10 Biodiversity and Human Health and Wellbeing

Column 1-5

The Human–Nature Relationship Affects Human Health

In 2003, an atypical pneumonia known as SARS broke out. In total, 8422 people were

infected, and 919 people died, thus resulting in a death rate of 11%. In 2013, research at

the Wuhan Institute of Virology confirmed that the source of the SARS virus was the

Chinese rufous horseshoe bat and that the intermediate host was the masked palm civet.

This research also confirmed that people initially became infected by eating the

intermediate host. Scientists worldwide warned that preying on wild animals can threaten

human life.

At the moment, COVID-19 continues to rage across the world. By the end of July 2021,

the number of confirmed cases worldwide exceeded 190 million, and deaths exceeded

four million, as shown in Figure 1. In April 2020, the World Health Organization, based on

the research results of scientists from various countries, suggested that bats were most

likely the host of this type of virus in nature. But how the COVID-19 virus was transmitted

from bats to humans remains unknown.

On the International Day for Biological Diversity in 2020, Elizabeth Mrema, the executive

secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity, said that COVID-19 has reaffirmed

that biodiversity is the foundation of human health and that the need to protect

biodiversity has become more urgent. Mrema hopes that COVID-19 will make more

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people aware of the fact that a healthy planet is essential for our recovery from this crisis.

She also hopes that the pandemic will serve as a wake-up call to fix our deteriorating

relationship with nature.

Figure 1 Confirmed COVID-19 Cases and Deaths Globally (as of August 16, 2021)

1.5 Biodiversity as a Key Factor Affecting the Rise and Fall of Human

Civilization

A livable ecology is conducive to the creation of splendid civilization. Human civilization

originated from agricultural society. Due to the low productivity of agricultural society, farming,

gathering, hunting and other activities all depend on biodiversity, and people thus tended to

settle in environments with good ecologies and an abundance of natural resources. All four

major civilizations of the ancient world — China, Egypt, Babylon, and India — originated in

areas with dense forests, abundant water and fertile landNotably, the Yangtze and Yellow rivers,

Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, Induswere cradles of early human civilization. Surging rivers created

favorable conditions for crop and livestock growth, and the areas they flew through enjoyed

fine, fertile and loose soil offering high yields that were conducive to population growth.

Throughout their process of production, living and development, people consistently interacted

with nature. Glorious early human civilizations were formed in this way.

Biological degradation threatens the continuity of civilization. Human beings were born as a

part of nature. If nature is systematically destroyed, mankind will lose the foundation upon

which it must survive and develop. Engels stated the following in the Dialectics of Nature: “The

people who, in Mesopotamia, Greece, Asia Minor and elsewhere, destroyed the forests to

obtain cultivable land, never dreamed that by removing along with the forests the collecting

centers and reservoirs of moisture they were laying the basis for the present forlorn state of

those countries.” The ancient Babylonian civilization, which originated in Mesopotamia, was

once called “paradise on earth” by the Jews and Greeks. There were once rich greenness of

lush trees and fields, dense river systems and thriving population. Today, all that remain are

some ancient ruins, as shown in Figure 1.11. Many studies and analysis have shown that the

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rapid growth of urban population, excessive deforestation and land reclamation have caused

serious soil erosion and ecological damage, leading to the decline of the ancient Babylonian

civilization.

Figure 1.11 The Remains of Babylon Civilization

Ecological civilization represents a new stage of human civilization. There are three major

stages in the history of human civilization: primitive civilization, agricultural civilization and

industrial civilization. At present, humanity is in a stage of gradual transition toward ecological

civilization, as shown in Figure 1.12. Before the Industrial Revolution, humankind’s productivity

was limited, and its negative impact on nature was relatively small. Since the dawn of industrial

civilization in the late 18th century, however, social productivity has been unleashed and has

soared like never before. Mankind has created massive material wealth, but global problems

such as resource shortages, global warming, environmental pollution and ecological loss are

Figure 1.12 The Stages of Human Civilization

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on the rise. The traditional pattern of development that pits progress at the cost of

environmental damage has become increasingly difficult to sustain. Ecological civilization,

however, is a new form of human civilization. As both a reflection of the bitter lessons of

industrialization and an inheritance of industrial civilization, ecological civilization follows the

overall laws of nature, the economy and society, among other sectors. It promotes the

harmonious coexistence of humankind with nature, and it creates mutually beneficial scenarios

for both development and the environment. As an important part of ecological civilization,

biodiversity protection plays an irreplaceable and paramount role in the sustainable

development of human civilization. It is high time for mankind to pull together, act decisively

and promptly reverse current trends to ensure coordinated progress in development and

protection, thus fostering a beautiful, harmonious homeland for all life on earth.

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Biodiversity: Current Status and Challenges

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Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

As species extinction accelerates on a global scale, the diversity of animals and

plants is being severely endangered, and the problems of biodiversity loss and

ecosystem degradation remain grave. Humanity’s massive exploitation of

biological resources has led to ecosystems losing their ability to recover, posing

a serious threat to human survival and development. These challenges imply

that countries worldwide now find themselves at a crossroads of biodiversity

governance. Simply put, continuing the old path will render the biodiversity

vision of “living in harmony with nature by 2050” impossible.

2.1 Current Status of Biodiversity

Biodiversity constitutes the foundation of human existence on Earth. Numerous research

studies show that millions of species on Earth have become extinct or endangered. Species

diversity, ecosystem diversity and genetic diversity have been seriously degraded, and the

earth’s species face serious threats.

2.1.1 Loss of Species Diversity

1 Accelerating species extinction

A large number of species have become extinct. The number of biological species on Earth is

declining at an unprecedented rate. Over the past 500 years, the total number of wild animal

and plant species on land has decreased by 10%, and the total number of species has fallen

14%. The 20811 populations of 4392 animal species, including mammals, birds, amphibians,

reptiles, and fish have declined by an average of 68%^A. A large number of rare species, have

been declared extinct^B, including the Oahu tree snail in Hawaii, Rabb’s fringe-limbed tree frog

in Panama, the northern white rhino in Kenya, the Galapagos tortoise in Ecuador, the Bramble

Cay melomys in Australia, the western black rhino in Cameroon, the Pinta Island tortoise in the

Galapagos, and the Alagoas foliage-gleaner in Brazil, as shown in Figure 2.1.

The number of endangered species is on the rise. “Endangered species” refers to species face

danger of extinction, whose populations have been significantly reduced for long periods of

time. In 2019, the IUCN put over 7000 animal and plant species on the Red List, including 21%

of mammals, 30% of amphibians, 12% of birds, 28% of reptiles, 37% of freshwater fish, and

35% of invertebrates^Cas shown in Figure 2.2.

__________

ASource: WWF, Living Planet Report 2020, 2020.

BSource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, Fifth Edition, 2020.

CSource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, Third Edition,

2010.

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Galapagos tortoise

Golden Toad

Figure 2.1 Recently Extinct Species

Figure 2.2 Species Extinction Risk Overview^A

__________

ASource: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Global

Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Summary for Policymakers, 2019.

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Column 2-1

Extinction Risk Assessment Methods

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the world’s largest and

oldest non-profit environmental protection organization. It is also the only international

organization in the field of natural environmental protection and sustainable development

with permanent observer status on the UN General Assembly.

In 2011, the IUCN released its Red List of Threatened Species (the “IUCN Red List”),

which determined quantitative thresholds for population size and structure, population

reduction rate, distribution range and structure, and extinction risk, based on results from

population viability modeling, and proposed methods for assessing extinction risk. The

IUCN Red List divides all species into eight categories: not evaluated, data deficient,

least concern, near threatened, vulnerable, endangered, critically endangered, extinct in

the wild, and extinct. Of these, species classified as vulnerable, endangered, and

critically endangered are considered threatened.

Figure 1 shows the proportions of the 47000 species worldwide falling into the eight

categories, of which over one third (36%) are considered threatened, implying that they

have been classified as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered.

Figure 1 Proportions of Species by Extinction Risk

Biodiversity in tropical areas has suffered worst. Tropical forests provide a venue for the largest

proportion of global biodiversity, accounting for only 7% of the world’s land area but over half of

its species. From 1970-2006, global populations of wild vertebrates decreased by 31%, while

those in the tropics declined by 59%^A. 22% of the world’s plants, mostly in the tropics, are at

__________

ASource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, Third Edition,

2010.

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risk of extinction^A.

2 Varied species at risk of extinction

Amphibian species face the significant risk of extinction. As shown in Figure 2.3, of the 8282

species of amphibians in the world, 32.5% were considered threatened (assessed as

vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered) according to a 2004 assessment of

endangered species. Of 6260 amphibian species on the IUCN Red List, 2030 are at risk of

extinction and 39 have been identified as extinct, with the fastest declines in amphibian

populations occurring in Central and South America and the Caribbean.

Figure 2.3 Overview of Species Extinction^B

The extinction of mammals is accelerating. Mammals are among the most biologically diverse

species in the animal kingdom. Studies indicate that at least 350 mammal species have

become extinct in recent years, and that this rate of extinction has been increasing. Freshwater

mammals face the greatest threat, with the fastest increase in mammal extinction observed in

South and Southeast Asia under the influence of the combined effects of hunting and habitat

loss.

The number of plant populations has been greatly reduced. Plants constitute an important

foundation of the terrestrial ecosystem, helping to support and sustain all life on Earth, protect

human health, and serve as a key source of food. Studies reveal that the number of plants

__________

ASource: Brummitt N. A, et al., Green plants in the red: A baseline global assessment for the IUCN Sampled

Red List Index for plants, 2015.

BSource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, Third Edition,

2010.

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species that have become extinct is twice the sum of extinctions amongst mammals, birds and

amphibians^A. Of the 60000 tree species found worldwide, over 20000 are on the IUCN Red List,

and over 8000 have been assessed as threatened globally (critically endangered, endangered,

or vulnerable). Over 1400 tree species, and a large number of forest fungi, are listed as

critically endangered species in urgent need of protection^B.

3 The approaching sixth mass extinction

The Earth has experienced five mass extinctions over the past 500 million years, as shown in

Figure 2.4. The first was the Ordovician-Silurian mass extinction 440 million years ago, when

the global climate rapidly entered a glacial period, leading to the extinction of about 100

families and a total of 85% of marine life. Trilobites, brachiopods, graptolites and other

creatures drastically reduced in number or even became extinct. The second was the late

Devonian mass extinction 360 million years ago. As the global climate entered a glacial period

and the oxygen content of seawater plummeted, about 70% of marine life, including corals,

brachiopods, ammonites, crinoids and other invertebrates was eliminated. The third was the

Permian-Triassic mass extinction 250 million years ago. Likely caused by a large-scale basalt

eruption in Siberia, resulting changes in the composition of the atmosphere, ocean currents,

and atmospheric circulation resulted in the extinction of 96% of species^C— the highest

proportion of the five mass extinctions. The fourth was the Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction

208 million years ago. While its cause remains unknown, over 100 families became extinct,

including all conodonts, multiple species of cephalopods, brachiopods, ammonites and

sponges in the oceans, and many insects and vertebrates on land. The fifth was the

Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction, 65 million years ago. It is generally believed that at that

time a huge asteroid hit the earth, causing volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and tsunamis on a

global scale, resulting in cloud masses blocking out the sun and reducing global temperatures.

52% of the genera and 85% of the species in the earth’s biosphere disappeared completely,

including the dinosaurs, which had ruled the earth until then.

Figure 2.4 The Earth’s Five Mass Extinction Events

The rate of species extinction has accelerated dramatically. The current rate of species

extinction is dozens to hundreds of times higher than the average rate over the past 10 million

years, and it is still accelerating. A total of more than 600 species have become extinct since

__________

ASource: Humphreys A. M, Global dataset shows geography and life form predict modern plant extinction

and rediscovery, 2019.

BSource: FAO, The State of the World’s Forests, 2020.

CSource: Biodiversity, New Star Press, 2020.

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1500, most of which disappeared approximately during the past 120 years. According to a

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report, one plant species becomes extinct

every minute and one animal species every day; rates far higher than the background

extinction rate. A study by Stanford University in the US suggests that the number of terrestrial

vertebrates that will become extinct worldwide over the next 20 years may be as high as that

during the entire 20th century. Animals and plants are dying out at an extraordinary rate, and

this may ultimately endanger humanity itself.

2.1.2 Deterioration of Ecosystem Diversity

Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities have destroyed forests, grasslands, wetlands

and other important ecosystems, leading to a rapid decline in indicators of biodiversity, as

shown in Figure 2.5. Between 2000 and 2016, 75% of land, 66% of waters, and more than 85%

of wetlands underwent tremendous changes^A. The severe degradation of these biological

habitats poses a major threat to the survival of animals and plants, and to biodiversity.

Figure 2.5 Ecosystem Living Planet Index^B

1 Terrestrial ecosystems

Forest ecosystems have seriously deteriorated. Known as the “lungs of the earth”, forest

ecosystems play an active role in climate regulation, soil and water conservation,

wind-breaking and sand dune fixation. Currently, forests cover approximately 31% of the earth’s

land area, a total area of 40.6 million km²mainly distributed in Brazil, Canada, China, Russia

and the US^C. These forest ecosystems have been severely damaged by climate change and

environmental pollution in recent years. From 1990 to 2020, a total of 1.78 million km²of forests

disappeared worldwide, an area the size of Libya. Africa the highest rate of deforestation from

2010 to 2020, with an annual net forest loss of 39400 km², has followed by South America, with

an annual loss of 26000 km², as shown in Figure 2.6.

__________

ASource: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Global

Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Summary for Policymakers, 2019.

BSource: WWF, Living Planet Report 2018, 2018.

CSource: FAO, The State of the World’s Forests, 2020.

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Figure 2.6 Decreases in Forest Area^A

Deterioration of desert ecosystems is accelerating. Desert ecosystems are an integral part of

the terrestrial ecosystem, and the area covered by deserts globally has been expanding in

recent years. One third of the world’s land area shows a tendency towards desertification,

putting over one billion people in 100-plus countries and regions at risk. Two fifths of Africa, one

third of Asia, and one fifth of Latin America are at risk of desertification, which is ongoing at a

rate of 50000-70000 km²per year. If this is not controlled, one third of the world’s arable land is

projected to become desertified by the end of this century.

Grassland ecosystems have suffered serious damage. With a total area of 52 million km²,

grasslands account for 40.5% of the world’s land area, mainly distributed in Africa, Asia, Latin

America and Oceania. Ecological problems such as grassland degradation, alkalization and

desertification affect most grasslands to varying degrees. Almost half of the Cerrado

grasslands in central Brazil have been replaced by arable land and pasture, at an annual loss

rate reaching 0.7% between 2002 and 2008.

2 Inland water ecosystems

The aggregate area of wetland ecosystems has fallen significantly. Wetlands are vital to

ecological conservation and the sustainable development of humanity, not only nourishing wild

animals and plants, but also mitigating the ecological risks humans must face. To date, 2341

important wetlands, with a total area of 2.5 million km², have received international recognition.

But under the influence of human activities, wetland ecosystem coverage has continued to

decrease. Since 1900, the areas of inland and offshore wetlands have shrunk by over 70%, and

over 60%, respectively. Between 1970 and 2015, the global Wetlands Extent Trends Index

dropped by 35% (Figure 2.7). The rate of loss of coastal wetlands was higher than that in inland

areas, with Latin America and the Caribbean suffering the highest wetlands loss rates.

__________

ASource: FAO, The State of the World’s Forests, 2020.

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Figure 2.7 Wetland Area Reductions^A

The fragility of river ecosystems has worsened. Linking land and sea, river ecosystems play a

vital role in the biosphere’s material cycle. A recent assessment of global river connectivity

showed that by 2019 two thirds of 292 large river systems had been fragmented by dams and

reservoirs, with only 23% running unimpeded into the ocean^B. Over 80% of the world’s

wastewater is discharged directly into rivers without treatment, generally causing deterioration

in their water quality^C.

Estuary ecosystem have been heavily polluted. Estuaries and coastal areas, transition areas

between land and river, represent a fragile, environmentally sensitive zones. Since the

Industrial Revolution, the fertilizer salt load in coastal areas around the world has sharply

increased, and increasing the quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus delivered to coastal areas

by 2.5 and 2 times, respectively. For example, nitrate and phosphate concentrations the

Mississippi River increased by 3-4 times between 1950 and 2000. Concentrations of dissolved

inorganic nitrogen and labile phosphate in the Yangtze River mainstream also increased

substantially between 1960 and 2000.

3 Marine and coastal ecosystems

Coral reefs are in massive decline. Indispensable elements of marine ecosystems, coral reefs

are responsible for nourishing a quarter of marine species and nearly one billion people^D. But

live coral coverage has nearly halved over the past 150 years, at a rate of decline that has

__________

ASource: Darrah, S. E., et al. Improvements to the Wetland Extent Trends (WET) index as a tool for monitoring

natural and human-made wetlands. 2019.

BSource: Grill, G et al. Mapping the World’s Free-Flowing Rivers. 2019.

CSource: GEIDCO, Towards Sustainable Development, 2020.

DSource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, 2010.

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accelerated dramatically over the last two to three decades^A. Rising ocean temperatures and

ocean acidification have led to frequent large-scale coral bleaching events. Live coral

coverage in the Indo-Pacific region dropped sharply from 47.7% in 1980 to 26.5% in 1989,

representing an annual loss rate of 2.3%^B. Coral reef bleaching, as shown in Figure 2.8.

Note: Black horizontal lines indicate average coral bleaching percentage; oblique line represents bleaching probability.

Figure 2.8 Coral Reef Bleaching

Mangrove swamps have suffered severe damage. Mostly located in the marine-terrestrial

interfaces of tropical and subtropical coastal areas, mangrove swamp ecosystems perform an

extremely important role in terms of seawater purification, wind-breaking and wave reduction,

and carbon sequestration and storage. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

estimates that 36000 km²(20%) of mangroves disappeared between 1980 and 2005, with an

average of 1850 km²of mangroves disappearing each year during the 1980s. Average annual

losses of mangrove area declined to 1185 km²during the 1990s, and to 1020 km²between

2000 and 2005^C, but despite this decline in the average annual loss, significant losses

continue.

The degradation of marine ecosystems has intensified. Situated in coastal areas between

coastlines and the edges of continental shelves or large ocean currents, marine ecosystems

contain abundant marine resources. In recent years, the accelerated increase of ocean

temperatures, overfishing, plastic waste and other problems have seriously weakening their

stability. According to UNESCO, 64 of 66 large marine ecosystems worldwide are experiencing

increasing sea temperatures. Of these, the East China Sea, the Scotia Shelf (located southwest

of Nova Scotia, Canada), and the US’ Northeast Continental Shelf have experienced the fastest

sea temperature increases. 33% of the fish populations in the ocean are now classified as

overexploited, with more than 55% of the ocean’s area affected by industrial fishing^D. The

oceans contain over 5 trillion pieces of plastic debris, with an aggregate weight of up to 250000

__________

A, DSource: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Global

Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Summary for Policymakers, 2019.

B, CSource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, 2010.

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tons^A, putting the lives of fish, seabirds and other species in danger.

Deep-sea habitats have suffered severe damage. While they contain a great diversity of marine

life, due to the lack of light and high hydrostatic pressure, deep-sea creatures tend to grow

slowly and possess long life expectancies, making deep-sea biodiversity relatively fragile. The

excessive development and utilization of deep-sea biological resources has led to serious

declines in high-quality fish resources. Fish are tending to become smaller and mature younger,

with the proportion of low-quality fish in fishing yields increasing year by year. The development

of deep-sea mineral resources also produces huge eddies which cause catastrophic damage

to seabed plants and animals^B.

Column 2-2

The Great Barrier Reef Ecosystem

The Great Barrier Reef, located in the southern hemisphere, is the largest and longest

coral reef in the world. Running along the northeastern coast of Australia from the Torres

Strait to south of the Tropic of Capricorn, it is 2011 km long and, at its widest, 161 km

wide. Its 2900 coral reef islands of varying scales offer unique landscapes. In recent

years, under the influence of rising sea temperatures and ocean acidification, numerous

corals have bleached and frequent outbreaks of diseases, such as coral diseases, and

infestations of pests, such as blue-green algae, have occurred. Populations of dugongs,

sea turtles, seabirds, sea cucumbers and sharks have also decreased, seriously

damaging the Great Barrier Reef’s ecological balance.

In recent years, environmentalists from all over the world have called for the protection of

the Great Barrier Reef. In 1979, the Australian government established the Great Barrier

Reef Marine Animal Management Office in order to set up a marine protected area and

rationally develop local tourism. In 1980, UNESCO listed the Great Barrier Reef as an

international nature reserve. Subsequently, the Australian government passed a series of

laws and regulations, for example prohibiting the collection of shells from, or movement

of dead coral branches upon, the Great Barrier Reef, which reduced the impact of

human activities on the local environment, with the aim of maintaining the delicate

balance of the local ecology.

2.1.3 Loss of Genetic Diversity

The genetic diversity of domesticated animals and plants has rapidly diminished. Human

domestication of plants and animals has altered their genetic traits, resulting in a loss of

genetic diversity in the crop and livestock production systems. Of the 7745 local breeds of

livestock that exist globally, 26% are at risk of extinction. Since the mid-19th century, the

__________

ASource: Eriksen, M. Plastic Pollution in the World’s Oceans: More than 5 Trillion Plastic Pieces Weighing over

250000 Tons Afloat at Sea. 2014.

BSource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, 2010.

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genetic diversity of wild species has declined by about 1% per decade^A. One tenth of

domesticated mammals, 3.5% of domesticated birds, and over one fifth of livestock and poultry

species are at risk of extinction (Figure 2.9).

Figure 2.9 Livestock and Poultry Species’ Extinction Risk^B

Standardized farming and animal husbandry have lead to a degradation of biodiversity. The

rapid expansion of agriculture and animal husbandry has had a serious impact on the genetic

diversity of animals and plants. Of the 6000 plant species used as foods worldwide, nine

species account for around 66% of crop yields^C. The number of rice varieties cultivated in

China has dropped from 46000 in the 1950s to about 1000 in 2006. And of the 7000 livestock

breeds raised worldwide, 21% are at risk of extinction^D, a Figure that is continuing to

increase.

Invasive species are threatening genetic diversity. Invasive plants and animals can impact

native species, the functioning of ecosystems, and human health. Since 1970, the pace of

invasion by alien species has been increasing, with the number of invasive species rising by

about 70%. This surge of invasive species has had devastating effects on local communities.

For example, the invasive Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis(Bd), an amphibian fungal pathogen,

poses a threat to nearly 400 amphibian species, and has already led to the extinction of

multiple species.

__________

A, ESource: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Global

Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Summary for Policymakers, 2019.

BSource: FAO, The State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, edited by

Barbara Rischkowsky & Dafydd Pilling.

CSource: FAO, Summary of the State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture, 2019.

DSource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, 2010.

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2.2 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity

2.2.1 Evolution of Biodiversity Conservation

1 Stage I: Biodiversity raises widespread concern

Since the beginning of the 20th century, in parallel with placing emphasis on economic

development, the international community has begun to pay increasing attention to the

protection of biological resources via preservation of rare and endangered species, and

conservation of natural resources. In 1948, the United Nations and the French government

established the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). In 1961, the World Wide

Fund for Nature (WWF) was established. In 1971, UNESCO proposed the Man and Biosphere

Programme. After the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in

1972, the international community began to pay particular attention to the balance between

environmental protection and development. Dealing with the relationship between economic

and social development and the ecological sustainability of nature was recognized as a

practical problem that urgently needed to be tackled^A.

Since the 1980s, as protective efforts intensified, the inextricably complex connections

between species, and between living things and their surroundings, came to be recognized,

and an understanding that the preservation of rare and endangered species requires equal

emphasis on their wild populations and their habitats developed. This was the context within

which the concept of biodiversity protection arose. In 1980, the World Conservation Strategy,

compiled by the IUCN and other international nature conservation organizations, was officially

published. Through proposing integration of the protection of natural resources with their

rational utilization, this strongly promoting the protection of biological resources.

2 Stage II: Preliminary consensus on biodiversity governance

At the suggestion of the United Nations General Assembly, the IUCN began to draft the United

Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Thanks to the shared efforts of experts and

government departments from all over the world between 1984 and 1989, the IUCN completed

its draft of the CBD, which included proposals for the biodiversity conservation of species,

genes, and ecosystems, and for a reasonable allocation of rights and obligations between

developed and developing countries^B.

In June 1987, the Word Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) submitted a

report entitled Our Common Future to the UN General Assembly. This deepened the

international community’s understanding of sustainable development concepts, and enhanced

environmental and developmental efforts, especially those addressing global environmental

problems such as the sharp decline in biodiversity. From November 1988 to July 1990, the

UNEP convened three special working group meetings of biodiversity experts which played an

active role in the CBD’s signature.

__________

ASource: Wu Jun, Convention on Biological Diversity, Background and Main Contents, 2011.

BSource: Ma Keping, Drafting and Main Contents of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 1994.

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3 Stage III: Initial establishment of global biodiversity governance system

The CBD was formally adopted on June 1, 1992 at the seventh meeting of the

Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee initiated by UNEP. On June 5, 1992, the United

Nations Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with

world leaders gathering for this “Earth Summit”. 153 countries and the European Community

formally signed the CBD, marking a major step forward in environmental protection and

sustainable development.

2.2.2 Implementation of Convention on Biological Diversity

1 Main contents

The CBD is a legally binding political document designed to protect endangered plants and

animals, and to maximize protection of the earth’s diverse biological resources for the benefit of

present and future generations. United Nations biodiversity framework, as shown in Figure 2.10.

The CBD stipulates that developed countries will provide resources to developing countries in

the form of donations, remissions and technological transfers, in order to facilitate the

protection of biological resources. Parties were made responsible for cataloging plants and

wildlife within their own countries, and formulating plans to protect endangered animals and

plants. Parties were also made responsible for establishing financial institutions tasked with

assisting developing countries in the implementation of plans to protect animals and plants.

Figure 2.10 United Nations Biodiversity Framework

In 2010, at the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological

Diversity in Aichi Prefecture, Japan, the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 was adopted.

This proposed 20 targets relating to five strategic goals (Figure 2.11), collectively known as the

Aichi Biodiversity Targets.

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Figure 2.11 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020^A

In October 2021, the 15th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations

Convention on Biological Diversity (COP15) will commence in Kunming, China. Themed

“Ecological Civilization: Building a Shared Future for All Life on Earth”, it will play an active role

in enhancing the political will of the international community to protect biodiversity and in

advancing the establishment of ecological civilization. The meeting will deliberate on the

Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, review the implementation of the CBD and Strategic

Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, launch new administrative management and trust fund

budgeting for the CBD, and set new global biodiversity targets for 2030, in an effort to realize

the shared vision of living in harmony with nature by 2050.

2 Progress in biodiversity governance

Globally, progress in biodiversity governance has been sluggish. According to the fifth edition

of the Global Biodiversity Outlook, one of the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets has been fully

achieved, while 6 have been partially achieved. Of the 60 specific elements of the 20 targets, 7

have been achieved, and progress has been made in 38. Thirteen elements show no progress

__________

ASource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, 2020.

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or indicate a move away from the target.The progress towards two elements is unknown, as

shown in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12 Implementation of Aichi Biodiversity Targets

2.3 Main Challenges

Whilst the CBD clarifies the political framework for global biodiversity governance, against the

background of severe biodiversity loss, countries’ actions on the ground are far from adequate,

and biodiversity governance faces stark challenges.

1 Intensifying biodiversity crisis

The scope of the biodiversity crisis is expanding; it has evolved into a global crisis. In the

Americas, frequent fires in the Amazon rainforest are severely undermining regional biodiversity.

In Africa, arid areas continue to expand, while wetlands are shrinking, and species loss is

posing a serious threat to food security and water supply. In Europe, a large number of species,

including the Caucasian wisent (Bison Bonasus Caucasicus) and the Portuguese ibex (Capra

Pyrenaica Lusitanica) have become extinct. In Asia, extensive development of land resources

such as forests, grasslands, and arable land, and of other natural resources including water

and mineral resources, has endangered over a thousand species. Between 1970 and 2016, the

Living Planet Index (LPI)^Avalues for Eurasia, North America, South America, Africa, the

Indo-Pacific, and dropped by 30%, 25%, 85% 57%, 66%respectively (Figure 2.13). Species

extinction and ecological destruction are now challenges all countries face together.

The impact of the biodiversity crisis continues to intensify, and is intertwined with climate,

environment and resource challenges which hinder the sustainable development of humanity.

Since the Industrial Revolution, fishery resources have decreased by 90%. 34000 crop and

5200 plant species are set to become extinct during the next few years, posing a serious threat

to food security. Over the past 50 years, changes in the climate and environment have severely

__________

ALiving Planet Index: An indicator of the state of global biodiversity and the health of the planet, obtained by

monitoring changes in thousands of species’ populations worldwide.

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weakened species and ecosystem diversity. Nature’s Contributions to People (NCP) in terms of

climate regulation, energy supply, seed dispersal, freshwater supply, and extreme event

regulation have markedly declined (Figure 2.14). Between 1994 and 2013, ecological disasters

occurred frequently, with floods, droughts and extreme temperatures affecting about 2 billion

people worldwide, causing around 600000 deaths and average annual economic losses of

250-300 billion U.S. dollars.

Figure 2.13 Spreading Impact of Biodiversity Loss^A

Figure 2.14 Changes in Nature’s Contributions to People^B

__________

ASource: WWF, Living Planet Report 2020, 2020.

BSource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, 2020.

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2 Insufficient awareness of the seriousness of biodiversity issues

People lack knowledge of the importance of biodiversity, even though it is fundamental to

ecological and food security, serves as a material basis for economic and social development,

and provides a solid foundation for the establishment of a shared future for life on Earth. In

2018, a survey of the public in developing countries revealed that only about 38% of

respondents had some understanding of biodiversity and its value to sustainable development,

while the majority of the clearly lacked awareness of biodiversity’s importance. Driven by

anthropocentrism and egoism, governments have placed one-sided emphasis upon economic

growth, shortsightedly stimulating consumption, constantly intensifying the exploitation of

natural resources, and ignoring the upper limits imposed by resource, environmental and

ecological carrying capacities, aggravating the biodiversity crisis.

Awareness of ecological protection is weak. The human tendency towards status quo bias has

resulted in a lack of awareness concerning biodiversity conservation and governance. Nearly

half (46%) of the parties to the CBD have made slow to no progress in raising biodiversity

awareness. Research into the risks of biodiversity crises and consequent climate, ecology,

survival and social disasters remains insufficient, as does investment in monitoring, early

warning and prevention, while emergency preparedness remains weak, and measures in

response lacking.

3 Sluggish response to biodiversity crisis

Policy support for addressing the biodiversity crisis is weak. While the world’s major economies

have introduced regulations and released technical documents concerning biodiversity

protection, the implementation of these policies has progressed slowly. Among the nearly 200

CBD Parties, only about one third (34%) are on track to achieve the set goals; half (51%) are

making insufficient progress. A study by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological

Diversity shows that the implementation of the CBD and its Aichi Biodiversity Targets is

lagging mainly due to a disconnect with the UN 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, lack of

political will to implement the CBD and lack of motivation to formulate and implement relevant

policies.

The biodiversity governance system is not sufficiently binding. The global, all-encompassing

and long-term nature of the biodiversity crisis demands more rapid implementation of joint

efforts by all countries. However, fragmented and decentralized governance frameworks, weak

in terms of binding force, government guidance, corporate action, and public participation

have not been strong enough to generate synergies. 11% of the CBD Parties still have not

updated their National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans (NBSAPs), while 3% have not

even submitted them. An urgent need to accelerate the establishment of biodiversity

assessment systems, and to enhance the implementation of the CBD remains (Figure 2.15).

Promotion of technological capabilities is advancing slowly. Technology for capabilities such

as species protection, ecological restoration, and gene pools constitutes the foundation of

biodiversity governance. While developed countries possess most of the major technologies

important for biodiversity conservation, such as ecological and genetic engineering, most

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developing countries suffer from weakness in terms of funding, technology and capacity

building which means that they are continuing to struggle with severe environmental

degradation and slow progress in ecological governance.

Figure 2.15 Development of National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans^A

4 Lack of environmental protection promotion solutions

Holistic solutions are lacking. The most urgent task facing all countries and stakeholders is that

of establishing an operable, practicable and replicable biodiversity governance system that

balances efficiency and equity, and rights and responsibilities. Most of the governance

solutions proposed by various institutions focus on market mechanisms, a single technology,

and a specific industry. They fail to offer comprehensive consideration of national conditions

and synergies between various industries, and in balancing economic development and

biodiversity governance. This makes them unsuitable for promotion and implementation at

national and global levels.

An ecological governance planning system has yet to be put in place. While biodiversity loss

continues to be driven by climatic, environmental, population, economic and social factors, the

defective biodiversity planning system is hampering progress in the construction of ecological

conservation systems, especially in the areas of ecological conservation red lining and the

establishment of nature reserves. Facing these challenges, all countries should engage in

coordinated efforts to prioritize ecological protection and restoration across all economic and

social development processes. Clarification of biodiversity conservation and governance

measures should be further continued in plans for ecological protection and restoration, water

and soil conservation, restoration of farmlands, grasslands, rivers and lakes, protection of

endangered wild animals and plants, and water conservation.

__________

ASource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook, 2020.

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5 Inadequate ecological governance measures

Technical support for ecological governance remains weak. Ecological governance is an

organic whole combining technology and engineering. Room for improvement remains in areas

such as the establishment of systems of ecological protection and restoration standards, the

promotion of new technologies, and further application of results from scientific research.

Theoretical research remains disconnected from engineering practice, and a lack of systematic

key technologies and measures is limiting governments’ ability to produce long-term effects.

Technology service platforms and systems are incomplete, and the ecological protection and

restoration industry remains in its infancy. Ecological protection and restoration investigation,

monitoring, evaluation, and early warning capabilities remain insufficient, and cross-border

information sharing mechanisms have yet to be established.

Financial support remains insufficient. Estimated annual financial resources (including public,

private, domestic and international financing) for biodiversity governance amount to about

80-90 billion U.S. dollars, well below the targets measured in hundreds of billions of U.S. dollars.

Meanwhile annual subsidies for environmentally hazardous fossil fuels amount to about 500

billion U.S. dollars. Only 60 countries, fewer than 30% of the parties to the CBD, have

implemented environmental management by means of taxes and subsidies, implying a lack of

funding that is severely hampering biodiversity governance. With a global biodiversity

governance financing gap expected to reach 711 billion U.S. dollars by 2030, further

improvements in the sector’s financial security are urgently required.

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Major Drivers of the Biodiversity Crisis

3

Major Drivers of the Biodiversity Crisis

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Over the past half century, the global population has doubled, the economy has

grown fourfold, trade has risen tenfold, and urbanization has increased

significantly^A. In order to obtain the food, energy and raw materials needed for

humanity’s survival and development, we are consuming various natural and

biological resources at unprecedented rates, and have emitted large quantities

of greenhouse gases and harmful substances, damaging the natural

environment and driving ongoing deterioration in the diversity of species,

heredity, and ecosystems worldwide. It is estimated that the global population,

economy, trade, and level of urbanization, together with humanity’s need for

natural and biological resources, will continue to grow rapidly until 2050, posing

ever greater challenges to global biodiversity.

International organizations such as the United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP), the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the

World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF) have, through analysis, study and evaluation

of a large number of indicators and cases, concluded that the main drivers of the

diversity crisis are: habitat loss and degradation, excessive consumption of

biological resources, climate change, environmental pollution, and biological

invasion of alien species. Each of these drivers impacts terrestrial, freshwater,

and marine biodiversity to a different degree. For example, for terrestrial and

freshwater biodiversity, habitat loss is the most negative driving factor, followed

by excessive consumption of biological resources. Conversely, for marine

biodiversity, excessive consumption of fish, shellfish and other marine biological

resources exerts the greatest negative impact, with habitat loss ranking second^B.

In reality, while all five major drivers are inflicting increasingly severe damage

upon biodiversity, since the Industrial Revolution in particular, climate change

has increased in prominence, becoming the most important factor harming

biodiversity.

This chapter will provide a systematic overview of the manners and mechanisms

via which the five drivers affect biodiversity. Figure 3.1 describes the

relationships between human activities, drivers of biodiversity loss and

biodiversity losses.

__________

A, BSource: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Global

Assessment Report, 2019.

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Figure 3.1 How human activities cause biodiversity loss

3.1 Habitat Loss

Habitat refers to areas in which one or more species live, and rely upon for food, water, shelter

and other survival needs. Habitat loss refers to the loss or fragmentation of forest, grasslands,

wetlands, mangroves and other wildlife habitats, as a result of human activities such as

agricultural production, overgrazing, urban sprawl, and infrastructure construction^A.

Habitat loss has caused changes in physical habitats, food sources, population sizes, and

inter-species relationships, thus reducing biodiversity:

For communities of plant species, decreases in, or fragmentation of, habitat areas results in

increases in habitat boundary length per unit area. This tends to increase intrahabitat light

intensity, soil temperature, and air velocity, and change habitat edge microclimates from “cool

and wet” to “dry and warm”. This changes the structure and distribution of the plant

communities within habitats. Light-loving, drought-tolerant, and wind-pollinated plants grow

more rapidly in marginal zones, while shade-loving, cold-resistant, and animal-pollinated plants

tend to move towards habitat centers, increasing the difficulty with which their pollen and seeds

face in spreading to other habitats. This often leads to increases in the quantity of fallen leaves,

and decreases in the habitat edge canopy density, which in turn increases the light falling on

undergrowth and leaf density, thus accentuating the “dry-warm effect” and decreasing the

number of species and sizes of plants preferring “cool and wet” habitats.

__________

AHabitat destruction refers to the decrease in habitat area. Fragmentation refers to the transformation of a

large whole piece of habitat into small, isolated patches.

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Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

For animal communities, habitat loss reduces access to food sources, isolates communities,

and imposes restrictions on mating. First of all, most animal species need to travel freely within

their habitats to fulfill their food and survival needs. Habitat loss restricts species to smaller

areas, making it impossible to obtain the minimum territorial areas and food supplies necessary

for survival, leading to the deaths of numerous individuals, reductions in population sizes, and

thus problems such as difficulty in finding mating partners and inbreeding. After a population

drops below its “critical size” (the number of individuals needed to maintain a population’s

ability to replenish itself) recovery to a more sustainable size becomes very difficult and the

population’s extinction becomes likely. Second, some species’ migration may be disrupted by

habitat loss, reducing their chances for proliferation and establishment of populations, and

possibly driving some species into endangerment or extinction. For example, even a 100-meter

patch of farmland can pose an insurmountable obstacle to many invertebrates. Finally, habitat

loss contributes to increases in species density and disruption of inter-species relationships

such as predation, parasitism, competition, and symbiosis, further imbalancing biological

chains and driving biodiversity loss.

3.1.1 Forest Destruction

Forests contain the richest biodiversity on land. Covering about 31% of the earth’s land area,

forests play an important role in areas including water and soil protection and climate

regulation. Over two thirds of the world’s terrestrial species live in forests, or depend upon them

for survival^A. Scientific research has discovered about 1.75 million plant, animal, and fungi

species in forests, where it is estimated that the total number of species may exceed 100

million. Forest biodiversity is responsible for the availability of over 5000 commercial products,

including spices, herbs, foods and fabrics essential for human survival and well-being^B.

Forest destruction is posing a serious threat to biodiversity. According to statistics from 46

tropical and subtropical countries, deforestation and farming are the main reasons for the forest

loss in large areas in Africa, Central and South America, and (tropical and subtropical) Asia, as

shown in Figure 3.2^C. During the past decade, although the rate of forest degradation has

slowed, it is continuing globally on an alarming scale. It has significantly changed the physical

habitat, food sources, community structure and inter-species relationships of animals and

plants in forests, driving the rapid loss of forest biodiversity. Since the beginning of the 21st

century, the global tropical rainforest area has fallen by about 60000 square kilometers per year,

resulting in the extinction of up to 100 species per day^D.

__________

A, CSource: United Nations Environment Programme, State of the World’s Forests 2020, 2020.

B, DSource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Forest Biodiversity, 2011.

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Figure 3.2 Regional causes of deforestation 2000-2010

Column 3-1

Impact of Deforestation on Biodiversity

According to a WWF study, deforestation has mostly been occurring in 24 areas in Latin

America, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia and Oceania. These include the Amazon

region, central Africa, the Mekong River basin and Indonesia. Besides these, new areas

of deforestation are appearing in western and eastern Africa (Madagascar), the Amazon

regions of Guyana and Venezuela in Latin America, and the Maya Forest regions of

Mexico and Guatemala in North America. Between 2004 and 2017 around 430000

square kilometers of forest disappeared in these areas. During the same period, 45% of

these regions’ forests were undergoing a certain degree of fragmentation. Fragmented

woodlands are more susceptible to damage due to fire and human activities.

These areas of deforestation, abundant in biodiversity, boast a large number of unique

species. For example, the Amazon rainforest covers over 8 million km²stretching across

9 countries, and provides habitats sustaining the world’s most diverse birds, freshwater

fish, and butterflies. It is estimated that its inhabitants account for a quarter of all

terrestrial species. The tropical forests of the Congo Basin in Africa cover an area of over

4 million km²and contain conservation areas for elephants, gorillas and other wild

animals. Borneo and Sumatra have the tropical rainforests with the highest diversity

worldwide, constituting the last large expanse of primeval forest in Southeast Asia. They

contain more than 200 mammals, including elephants, orangutans, clouded leopards,

and are home to over 350 bird species, 150 species of reptiles and amphibians, and

10000 plant species.

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Different areas of deforestation are facing different pressures. Across the globe, the main

threats causing forest destruction include agriculture, unsustainable logging and use of

fuel wood, mining, infrastructure construction and forest fires. For example, as shown in

Figure 1, a large rainforest in Borneo, Malaysia was cut down and converted into oil palm

plantations for the production of palm oil and biodiesel. If effective measures are not

taken to address these, 17 million km²of forest in deforested areas will disappear

worldwide — an area equivalent to that of Germany, France, Spain, and Portugal

combined^A. The forest biodiversity in these areas will inevitably suffer greatly. Rare

species such as jaguars, pink river dolphins, and Cross River gorillas will disappear from

the earth forever.

Figure 1 Rainforest in Borneo, Malaysia Transformed into a Palm Oil Plantation

3.1.2 Grasslands Destruction

Grasslands provide an important storehouse of terrestrial biodiversity. Grasslands are

ecosystems with vegetation dominated by low, xerophytic herbs and shrubs, including

meadows, tundra, semi-deserts and other types of vegetated habitats. Grasslands can be

classified as tropical or temperate. Tropical grasslands are mainly distributed across Africa,

Australia, India and elsewhere, while temperate grasslands are mainly found in China,

Mongolia, central North America, and Argentina, in South America. Grasslands are mainly

located between forests and deserts, where their functions include wind erosion prevention

and sand fixation, soil and water conservation, climate regulation, and biodiversity

maintenance. One-third of the world’s crop varieties are derived from grasslands, where their

__________

ASource: World Wide Fund for Nature, Global Forest Vitality Outlook 2015, 2015.

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wild ancestors and relatives are still to be found. Grasslands also provide habitats for many

rare and endangered animals such as Asiatic wild asses, various species of lynx, and Pallas’s

cats, and contribute 50% to global animal husbandry output.

Grassland desertification poses a serious threat to biodiversity. Worldwide population growth

and economic development have given rise to excessive economic activities in grassland

areas, such as grazing and land reclamation for use in farming. This has led to grasslands soil

surface deterioration, declining groundwater levels, more severe desertification and more rapid

shrinkage of wild animals’ and plants’ physical habitats. In addition, pastures, farmland, and

large-scale infrastructure tend to cut off routes used by wild animals to reach water, forage or

migrate, impede the free spread of pollen and grass seeds, and sever grassland area

biological chains.

Column 3-2

Impact of Grasslands Desertification Control

on Biodiversity in Inner Mongolia

Grasslands are the main type of natural ecosystem in Inner Mongolia. Situated in the

eastern part of the Eurasian Steppe, the world’s largest temperate grassland, they are

the largest natural temperate grassland in China with the most complete and diverse

types of species. Inner Mongolia grasslands span three climatic zones from east to west:

temperate sub-humid zone, sub-arid zone, and arid zone, with meadow, typical, and

desert steppe respectively. More than 1000 kinds of plants grow on the six renowned

Hulun Buir Grassland, Xilin Gol Grassland, Horqin Grassland, Wulanchabu Grassland,

Ordos Grassland, and Alashan Grassland.

Historically, Xilingol League (prefecture), Hulunbuir City and other nearby places were

basically grasslands, with little land used for arable farming. At the end of the 1950s,

large areas of grasslands were developed for farming. In the 1980s, the rapid

development of land-use contracting to households and private businesses initiated

another round of grasslands reclamation. As grasslands desertification has intensified,

biodiversity has been seriously threatened. During the 21st century, local governments

have comprehensively bolstered measures designed to restore grassland ecosystems

and biodiversity, such as grazing rest and rotational grazing, and introduced ecological

incentives, with considerable success. In 2020, average vegetation coverage on the

Inner Mongolian grasslands as a whole reached 45%, up 15% from 30% seen at the

beginning of this century. In the Kubuqi Desert (Figure 1) and the Mu Us Desert near

Ordos, the number of biological species has increased by over 10 to more than 530.

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Figure 1 Kubuqi Desert Turned into an Oasis by Desertification Control

3.1.3 Destruction of Freshwater Habitats

Rivers, lakes, and wetlands possess plentiful biodiversity. Water covers more than two thirds of

the planet, but readily accessible freshwater – which is found in rivers, lakes, wetlands and

aquifers – accounts for less than one percent of the world’s water supply. These water systems

provide shelter for one-third of vertebrates, including freshwater fish, amphibians, aquatic

reptiles and mammals^A. The earth’s streams and rivers transport large volumes of fresh water

from highlands to lakes and oceans; water whose temperature and nutrient content increases

the further downstream it is. Thus downstream lakes and estuarine deltas see the highest

biodiversity. For example, the US freshwater estuarine area boasts 60% of the world’s crayfish

species, 30% of freshwater mussels, and 30% of plankton^B. Inland wetlands are also rich in

nutrients, with dense plants and numerous species, and provide important habitats for fish,

otters, and migratory birds.

The destruction of freshwater habitats is seriously threatening biodiversity. Since the 20th

century, the quantity of freshwater resources consumed by humans for production and daily

use has increased eightfold. At present, humans employ about half of the global runoff annually

and have constructed numerous dams to regulate river flows. Humans have also drained or

filled in inland wetlands for agriculture or urban expansion. Thus, since 1700, nearly 90% of

wetlands on Earth have disappeared. Since 1970 the Living Planet Index for freshwater

species has fallen by 84%, far exceeding the declines in terrestrial and marine species,

__________

A, BSource: Eric Chivian and Aaron Bernstein, Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity,

Beijing: Science Press, 2019.

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described in Chapter II. This decline in freshwater species numbers mainly occurred amongst

amphibians, reptiles and fish, and was particularly marked in Latin America and the

Caribbean^A.

3.1.4 Destruction of Marine Habitats

The ocean is a cornucopia of biodiversity. Occupying over 90% of the earth’s physical area, the

ocean plays host to about 250000 known species. And more have yet to be discovered: it is

estimated that at least two-thirds of marine species have not yet been identified. While coastal

areas, including coastal swamps, mangroves, seagrass beds, coral reefs and other habitats

occupy only 10% of the ocean’s area, they are home to 90% of marine species^B. Beneficiaries

of plentiful sunlight and nutrients delivered by rivers, tides, and ocean currents, mangroves and

seagrass meadows also assist with filtration of harmful substances and sediments, and provide

habitats and nurseries for fish and other aquatic species.

The destruction of marine habitats is seriously threatening biodiversity. At present, 50% of the

world’s population lives within 200 kilometers of the coast; development of coastal areas led to

the disappearance of half of coastal wetlands and at least 20% of mangrove forests between

1980 and 2005. Furthermore, human activities have destroyed around 20% of coral reefs in

shallow seas, with severe destruction also occurring in deep seas for similar reasons, including

bottom trawling^C. As great swathes of marine habitats, such as mangroves and coral reefs,

have disappeared, the numbers of marine species and their population sizes have been

declining worldwide. As mentioned in Chapter II, the marine biodiversity index has fallen by

35% since 1970.

Column 3-3

Impact of Establishment of Marine

Conservation Areas on Biodiversity

Since 2003, the number of marine conservation areas worldwide has been increased,

and has now reached 5880, with a 150% increase in area. The loss of marine habitats

such as seagrass meadows, mangroves, and salt marshes has slowed, and these

habitats are even expanding in many areas.

The populations of many large marine species have also increased, some even

considerably. A UNESCO study in 2020 showed that among 124 marine mammals,

populations of 47% has increased significantly in the previous ten years, while 40% were

unchanged and only 13% had shrunk.

__________

ASource: World Wide Fund for Nature, Living Planet Report 2020, 2020.

BSource: G. Tyler Miller, Scott Spoolman, Living in the Environment, Harbin: Harbin Press, 2018.

CSource: Eric Chivian and Aaron Bernstein, Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity,

Beijing: Science Press, 2019.

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3.2 Excessive Consumption of Biological Resources

Another important reason for the decline in biodiversity lies in the excessive consumption of

biological resources with high economic value^A. Humans have been hunting wild animals and

gathering wild plants for food, medicine, clothing, and handicrafts for thousands of years. But

since the 19th century, driven by population expansion and technological progress, human

demand for biological resources has rapidly expanded. Meanwhile hunting and gathering

ability and scope have also increased, leading to excessive consumption of biological

resources in some areas. Regardless of whether we consider land, freshwater or sea habitats,

or hunting, gathering or fishing, wherever the speed of development of biological resource

harvesting exceeds the ability of harvested creatures to maintain their populations, their

population sizes decline, and their habitats shrink, with some species even becoming extinct^B.

Excessive consumption of one kind of biological resource can also affect the survival and

development of other species via the biological chain. Species interact in various ways,

including competition, predation, parasitism, and symbiosis. When species are over-hunted or

over-gathered by humans, their prey may multiply due to the lack of natural enemies, leading to

an ecological imbalance. Meanwhile their natural predators may suffer from a lack of food,

sharply decreasing their populations or even leading to regional extinction.

3.2.1 Excessive Consumption for Energy Use

Huge demand for wood energy is causing excessive consumption of forest resources. In 2019,

wood energy, such as firewood and charcoal from forests, accounted for 40% of global

renewable energy^C, equivalent to solar, hydropower and wind energy added together. Wood

energy serves as cooking and heating fuel for about one-third of the world’s population^D. To

meet the huge demand for wood energy, about half of the world’s annual felling yield is used as

fuel^E. In some underdeveloped countries, the rate of deforestation is over 10 times that of tree

planting, inevitably leading to forest degradation. For example, Haiti’s forest coverage, once

60%, has dropped to less than 2%, due to excessive deforestation for fuel wood purposes^F.

Areas short of electric power rely more heavily on wood energy from forests. On the one hand,

the inadequacy of power grids in sub-Saharan Africa, Central and South America, Southeast

Asia and other regions, results in a failure to meet the needs of huge numbers of people for

affordable, reliable, and sustainable electricity. In 2019, electricity was still unavailable to about

780 million people worldwide, most of whom live in the above-mentioned areas. On the other

hand, these areas face not only lack electricity, but also impose high costs for using electricity.

__________

ASource: Wang Kanglin, Li Lianfang, Introduction to Biodiversity, Beijing: Science Press, 2020.

BSource: Eric Chivian and Aaron Bernstein, Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity,

Beijing: Science Press, 2019.

CThe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defined biomass fuel as a renewable energy source in the

Assessment Report.

DSource: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, State of the World’s Forests, 2018.

ESource: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Forests and Energy, 2007.

FSource: G. Tyler Miller, Scott Spoolman, Living in the Environment, Harbin: Harbin Press, 2018.

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In sub-Saharan Africa, for example, average electricity prices are as high as 14 U.S. cents/kWh,

2 to 3 times those of developing countries, and many people cannot afford electricity. For

production and daily living, people are forced to rely upon firewood and charcoal. Biomass

energy accounts for 45% of Africa’s primary energy supply, and satisfies over 50% of demand

for final energy consumption, directly reflecting the continent’s massive consumption of forest

resources. In addition, sub-Saharan Africa, Central and South America, and Southeast Asia

happen to be the areas of the world experiencing the fastest population growth and

urbanization, so their energy demand is set to grow rapidly in future. If these areas’ problems

with insufficient and unaffordable electricity are not properly addressed, excessive

consumption of forest resources will continue indefinitely.

Column 3-4

Power Scarcity and Forest Resource Consumption in Africa

Massive use of fuel wood due to electricity scarcity is the main reason for Africa’s

excessive consumption of forest resources. In 2018, the total energy consumption and

electricity consumption in Africa accounted for only 6% and 3%, respectively, of the

world’s, and the electricity access rate in sub-Saharan Africa was only 45%. At present,

about 600 million people in Africa lack access to electricity, a Figure which is expected

to fall to 530 million by 2030. Lacking access to reliable, economical electric power,

around 900 million people in Africa use inefficient stoves to burn fuel wood, charcoal and

other traditional biomass fuels for cooking, which directly drives excessive consumption

of forest resources. Between 2000 and 2010, about 20000 square kilometers of forest in

Africa disappeared annually, mainly (over 50% ) due to the use of wood energy^A, as

shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Regional Drivers of Forest Degradation 2000-2010

__________

ASource: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, State of the World’s Forests, 2020.

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Population growth, urbanization and economic development are likely to further increase

the pressure on Africa’s forest resources. Africa has one-fifth of the world’s population

today, 40% of which is people under the age of 15. Over the next 20 years, Africa’s

population will grow rapidly, making a contribution in excess of 50% to total global

population growth, and benefiting from a demographic dividend favoring urbanization

and economic growth. By 2040, Africa’s urban population will increase by 580 million,

and its GDP will increase to 2.5 times the current level^A. Rapid population growth,

urbanization and economic development will all drive growth in energy demand, placing

yet greater pressure on the sustainable development of forest resources in Africa.

3.2.2 Excessive Consumption for Food

In forest areas of Africa and Southeast Asia, a notable problem of excessive consumption of

“jungle meat” exists. In central Africa, 80% of the animal protein consumed comes from wild

forest animals. In the Congo Basin alone, 60% of mammal species are estimated to be hunted

in an unsustainable way. The number of wild animals hunted each year is staggering,

exceeding 1 million tons, enough for over 30 million people to each consume about 110 grams

of “forest burger” per day.^B

Overfishing is a serious problem worldwide. On the one hand, about one-third of global marine

fishery resources face overfishing. The Mediterranean and the Black Sea suffer the highest

rates of overfishing, followed by the Southeast Pacific and Southwest Atlantic^C. In 2019, the

global annual wild seafood catch reached a staggering 11.9 million tons. Moreover, marine

overfishing also adversely affects other marine life. For example, reef sharks have disappeared

from coral reefs in several countries due to shortages of their prey species, and interference

from fishing gear. On the other hand, it is difficult to be optimistic about the prospects for the

world’s fresh water fisheries. For example, while over 160000 fishing boats of various types,

and upwards of 300000 fishermen are employed in China’s Yangtze River Basin, the annual

catch is less than 100000 tons, implying that past fishing intensity has far exceeded the levels

acceptable to the Yangtze River’s biological resources. In order to break the vicious circle of

“the less available fishery resources, the worse ecology and poorer fishermen”, the Ministry of

Agriculture and Rural Affairs of P.R. China has decided to implement a ten-year ban on fishing

in the Yangtze River from 2020 to allow fish and other aquatic life to recuperate in the Yangtze

River.

3.2.3 Excessive Consumption for Medicinal Use

Some animals with high medicinal value have been hunted excessively. In some Asian

countries, people have long mistakenly believed that certain wild animals can help cure

__________

ASource: International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook, 2019.

BSource: Eric Chivian and Aaron Bernstein, Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity,

Beijing: Science Press, 2019.

CSource: United Nations Environment Programme, fifth edition of the Global Biodiversity Outlook, 2020.

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diseases, maintain health, and promote longevity. Large-scale hunting of these animals has

made some species endangered or even critically endangered. For example, in China, the

scales of pangolins, which are mere appendages of keratinized skin, lacking any special

medicinal effect, have been regarded as precious medicinal materials since ancient times As a

result, pangolins were hunted with abandon, and their numbers dropped sharply, reducing the

species to the verge of extinction and earning it a place on China’s second-class list of key

protected wildlife.

Pangolins

Some plants with high medicinal value are gathered in excessively quantity. One of

Madagascar’s native species, the rose periwinkle, contains vinblastine and vincristine,

compounds effective for treating lymphoma and acute leukemia. The wild plant, however, has

become endangered due to excessive gathering. The efficacy of African cherry bark in treating

malaria and prostatic enlargement has led to these trees being felled and exported in large

quantities. Scientists now estimate that it will become extinct in the wild in 5 to 10 years^A. Many

Chinese medicinal plants, such as Taxus chinensis, Dendrobium nobile, Paris polyphylla, and

Gastrodia elata, are in similar situations.

3.2.4 Excessive Consumption for Clothes Making

People’s love for fur and leather products has put endangered some species. One example is

the southern sea otter which inhabits the west coast of the United States. In the early 20th

century, these were hunted for their thick and dense fur, rapidly reducing a population of 20000

to the brink of extinction. Not only that, but due to the “southern sea otter — sea urchin — kelp

forest” food chain, the otter’s dwindling led to a proliferation of sea urchins, damaging the

biodiversity the kelp forests had previously sustained. The American alligator, is another good

example. Since the 1930s, people have hunted them for alligator leather. By the 1960s, the

population of alligators in Louisiana had dropped by 90%, and those in the Florida Everglades

were almost extinct. In 1967, the US government protected alligators, placing them the

endangered species list, and their population began to recover.

__________

ASource: Eric Chivian and Aaron Bernstein, Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity,

Beijing: Science Press, 2019.

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Southern sea otter

American alligator

3.2.5 Excessive Consumption for Handicraft Use

Excessive handicraft production has caused some species great calamity. Ivory’s hard texture,

luster, and suitability for carving, for example, have made it greatly favored as a raw material for

handicrafts since ancient times. Removing ivory from elephants causes their deaths, so ivory

crafts are closely related to their massacre. Due to the ivory trade and illegal hunting, African

elephant numbers declined from 1.3 million in 1979 to less than 400000 in 2013. Elephants

have now died out in West Africa, and their numbers in Central and East Africa are rapidly

declining. If their population’s decline cannot be turned around, African elephants will become

extinct in 10 to 20 years.

Ivory

3.3 Climate Change

Climate change has triggered imbalances in the earth’s carbon cycle, with wide-ranging effects

on biodiversity. The earth’s carbon cycle is the process of continuous exchange of carbon

between various compartment of the “earth system”, via ocean, land, and atmospheric

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circulation, involving biological, physical and chemical processes. The carbon cycle for the

earth system should be “self-recycling” and “self-balancing”, but human activities have

rendered the natural carbon sinks incapable of absorbing surging carbon emissions,

unbalancing the carbon cycle. These changes in the carbon cycle are profoundly altering the

cyclical relationships between the various compartments of the earth system. Once the

balance is tipped and a qualitative change occurs, climate and environmental chain reactions

may be triggered, resulting in major changes in the structure and function of various

ecosystems further affecting species distributions and threatening their survival. Climate

change mainly affects biodiversity via temperature increases, ocean acidification, glacier

melting, severe disasters, etc.:

3.3.1 Temperature Increases

Global warming is accelerating. Global warming is caused by the ongoing accumulation of

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Although highly transparent to visible light from solar

radiation, greenhouse gases absorb long-wave radiation strongly. They thus absorb a large

proportion of the infrared rays reflected by the earth, resulting in an imbalance between the

energy absorption and emission of the Earth-atmosphere system, and continuous

accumulation of energy in the atmospheric system, which is causing global temperatures to

increase. In 2019, the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere rose to 415μg/g,

the highest in history. The World Meteorological Organization pointed out that the global

average temperature was 1.2 ℃ higher than before the Industrial Revolution;. The five years

between 2015 and 2019 were also the hottest on record. In 2019, the temperature in 36

countries and regions worldwide hit a record high, signifying “global heating” rather than global

warming. According to the latest study by the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC)^A, by 2040, the earth’s surface temperature will be 1.5-1.6 ℃ higher, with

temperature increases on the land higher than the global average, and those in the Arctic over

twice as high.

Global warming affects the distribution of species and destroys plant and animal habitats. On

the one hand, biological adaptations to global warming will cause plants and animals to move

to cooler climates and higher altitudes. Research suggests that terrestrial species are moving

toward the poles at an average pace of 17 kilometers per decade, while marine species are

moving at 72 kilometers per decade ^B. However, most plant species cannot change

geographical location quickly enough. The climate disaster will therefore cause many trees and

herbaceous plants to become extinct. On the other hand, the destruction of habitats upon

which many animals depend, or changes in their habitats, can also lead to species extinction.

Studies indicate that a global temperature increase of 2 ℃ would cause about 18% of insects,

16% of plants and 8% of vertebrates to lose over half their physical habitat. It would also cause

changes in ecosystem types on about 13% of the earth’s land area, and a 99% reduction in

coral reef coverage^CD, along with a rapid elevation in the impact of biodiversity-related risks,

,

__________

ASource: IPCC, Climate Change 2021: Sixth Assessment Report, 2021.

BSource: Pecl G T, Araujo M B, BellL J D, et al., Biodiversity Redistribution under Climate Change: Impacts on

Ecosystems and Human Well-Being, Science, 2017, 355(6332): i9214.

CSource: IPCC, Global Warming of 1.5°C, 2018.

DSource: United Nations Environment Programme, Living Planet Report, 2020.

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such as forest fires and species invasion.

3.3.2 Ocean Acidification

Ocean acidification is gradually continuing. Ocean acidification describes a process during

which hydrogen ion concentrations increase, pH values decrease, and acidity increases, as

increased quantities of atmospheric carbon dioxide lead to increased dissolution of this gas in

sea water. Since the Industrial Revolution, the pH of ocean surface water has fallen from 8.2 to

8.1, and its acidity has increased by 30%^A. According to predictions from the Earth System

Model, the climate and carbon cycle will enter positive feedback in the 21st century. Climate

change will partially disable the terrestrial and ocean carbon sink mechanisms, leaving an

increased proportion of the carbon dioxide emitted due to human activities in the atmosphere.

It is predicted that when the global temperature rises by 1.5 ℃, the increase in carbon dioxide

concentration will intensify ocean acidification, magnifying the adverse effects of climate

change, and that if the global temperature rises by 2 ℃, the pH of seawater will decrease by

0.06.

Ocean acidification affects marine biodiversity and destroys coral reef ecosystems. On the one

hand, as ocean acidity increases, the calcium carbonate secreted by many marine animals

and plants to forming skeletons or shells will tend to dissolve. This will affect nannoplankton, at

the bottom of the food chain, the crustaceans and mollusks commonly seen in human diets,

and some shell-like plants that attach to coral reefs. By impacting these organisms at the

bottom of the food chain, ocean acidification will have effects across the entire ecosystem. On

the other hand, reduced levels of carbonate ions dissolved in sea water will also affects the

coral reef ecosystem. Carbonate is required for the building of coral bones, so a reduction in its

concentration may render these bones fragile, slowing coral growth. Research on corals in

Bermuda revealed that over the past 25 years, the coral calcification rate has dropped by 50%,

likely due, in part, to ocean acidification^B. Coral reef ecosystems protect some low-lying

coastal areas from erosion and flooding; the impact of ocean acidification on coral reefs will

therefore inevitably threaten communities situated in these low-lying areas.

3.3.3 Glacier Melting

The melting of glaciers is accelerating. A total of 75% of the world’s fresh water, along with large

amounts of methane and other greenhouse gases, are stored in glaciers and the ice caps. Due

to global warming, the sea ice extent keeps shrinking. According to the latest IPCC research

report, the rate of warming in the high latitudes of the northern hemisphere is expected to be

2-4 times that of overall global warming. The area of Arctic sea ice in summer is decreasing at

a rate of about 13% per decade, and multiyear ice has almost disappeared^CD. The area of

,

Antarctic sea ice hit a record low for the three consecutive months from May-July 2019. The

__________

A, DSource: WMO, Global Climate in 2015-2019, 2020.

BSource: Cohen, A. Declining calcification rates of Bermudan brain corals over the past 50 years. 11th ICRS,

Fort Lauderdale, FL. 2008.

CSource: IPCC, Climate Change 2021: Sixth Assessment Report, 2021.

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melting of the Antarctic ice sheet may cause sea levels to have risen by over 1 meter in 2100^AB

.

,

The melting rate of the Greenland ice sheet has accelerated significantly during the past 20

years, with 179 billion tons of sea ice melting in July 2019 alone^C. The glaciers of the

Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the earth’s “Third Pole”, have been shrinking by 1314 square kilometers

every decade and this pace seems to be accelerating^D.

Glacier melting affects the survival of marine life and harms coastal ecosystems. On the one

hand, sea lions, polar bears, seals and other marine mammals that rely on sea ice for resting

places, predation and breeding are particularly susceptible to climate change. Studies indicate

that the population of polar bears near Alaska and the Southern Beaufort Sea in northeastern

Canada fell by 40% between 2001 and 2010. The reduction in sea ice also caused a 50%

reduction in the number of emperor penguins in the Antarctic Territory^E. As the ice sheet is

degraded, populations of Antarctic krill and other smaller creatures are also declining. Given

the importance of krill in the food chain, this is certain to adversely affect the entire marine food

cycle. On the other hand, the melting of snow and ice has caused sea levels to rise. It is

estimated that one-third of the increase in sea levels is caused by the melting of the Antarctic

and Greenland ice sheets. Many coastal ecosystems (such as coral reefs, seagrass, salt

marshes, and mangroves) provide important protection to coastal areas. However, most of

these are sensitive to the accelerating increase in sea levels, which is set to cause flooding in

25%-80% of the wetlands in US coastal areas^F.

3.3.4 Extremely Severe Disasters

Extreme weather disasters are a frequent occurrence. Extreme weather generally refers to

situations in which meteorological indicators, such as temperature, precipitation, or wind speed,

exceed historical extremes^G. With global warming, the frequency of extreme weather disasters

has been increasing around the world, and that of hurricanes, wildfires, and heat waves etc.

has increased significantly^H. Statistics from the International Disasters Database show that

from 2000 to 2019, there were 6681 climate-related disasters and 3.9 billion people were

affected. In contrast, from 1980 to 1999, there were 3656 climate-related disasters, and 2 billion

people were affected. According to a joint study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) and the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the probability of occurrence

__________

ASource: WMO, WMO Statement on the State of the Global Climate in 2019, 2020.

BSource: IPCC, Climate Change 2021: Sixth Assessment Report, 2021.

CSource: WMO, Climate Science Informs COP25, 2019.

DSource: Zhang Ruijiang, Fang Hongbin, et al., Remote Sensing Survey of Modern Glacier Area in the

Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in the Past 30 Years, Remote Sensing for Land and Resources, 2010.

ESource: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD Technical Series No. 10, 2003.

FSource: Wang Kanglin, Li Lianfang, Introduction to Biodiversity, Beijing: Science Press, 2019.

GExtreme weather refers to events in which a value of a meteorological indicator is in the top or bottom 10% of

observations, and thus has a probability of occurrence of 10% or less. The high temperature criterion is

generally a daily maximum temperature ≥ 35℃; the rainstorm criterion is 24-hour rainfall ≥ 50mm.

HWeather and climate disasters generally refer to weather and climate events that cause losses, adverse

consequences or changes to the normal operation of human society. The risk of disaster depends on three

major factors: weather and climate events, exposure of people and property, and their vulnerability.

Short-term, the risk is one of weather disaster, longer term, it is one of climate disaster.

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of tropical cyclones with an intensity of “strong hurricane” or above increased by about 8% on

average every 10 years between 1979 and 2017^A. During the period of most severe climate

warming, the intensity of tropical cyclones increased, converting increasing numbers of

tropical cyclones into hurricanes and increasing numbers of hurricanes into major hurricanes.

The increase in global temperatures has been associated with a tremendous increase in the

intensity, scope and duration of extreme weather.

Extreme weather disasters threaten crop growth. Climate change has led to temperature

increases, changes in precipitation, and frequent extreme weather disasters, affecting

agricultural biodiversity. Drought is the major culprit in reducing agricultural production,

followed by floods, storms, plant diseases and insect pests, and fires. Unfavorable climatic

conditions and abnormal droughts in most parts of Africa have led to sharp declines in planted

areas and yields^B. Between 2017 and 2019, eastern Australia suffered a drought during which

the Darling River ceased to flow, fish died in large quantities, and huge agricultural losses

occurred.

Extremely severe disasters affect small island ecosystems. Island ecosystems are particularly

vulnerable to climate change. Island species are usually small in population, highly localized,

and highly specialized. Storms or large-scale wildfires can drive them into extinction. It is

estimated that 75% of animals and 90% of the birds that have become extinct since the 17th

century lived on isolated islands. Moreover, currently, 23% of island species are endangered,

compared to 11% elsewhere in the world^C.

3.4 Environmental Pollution

Pollution refers to the introduction, by nature or man, of harmful substances into the

environment, in excess of its self-purification ability. The main sources of environmental

pollution include industry, transportation, agriculture and aquaculture^D. Since the Industrial

Revolution, unsustainable human production and consumption activities have inflicted severe

damage on the global environment. Air pollution, such as photochemical smog and haze,

remains visible in many places worldwide, while some areas are suffering serious water

pollution. The atmospheric, soil, freshwater and marine environments have deteriorated, and

biodiversity is facing serious threats.

Environmental pollution is the main driver of biodiversity loss. Excessive nutrients (especially

high active nitrogen and phosphorus), pesticides, plastics, pharmaceuticals and other wastes

can cause direct harm, but can also cause a reduction in genetic diversity, species diversity

and changes in ecosystem functioning via enrichment of the food chain, eutrophication, and

acid rain.

__________

ASource: James P K, Kenneth R K, Timothy L O, et al. Global increase in major tropical cyclone exceedance

probability over the past four decades, PNAS, 2020, 117 (22).

BSource: WMO, WMO Statement on the State of the Global Climate in 2019, 2020.

CSource: INSULA, the International Journal of Island Affairs. 2004.

DSource: United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Outlook 6, 2019.

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3.4.1 Air Pollution

Air pollution, including acid rain and ozone, is a serious problem. Emissions of pollutants from

human activities including sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), inhalable particles, and

ozone have far exceeded the environment’s carrying capacity, causing air pollution including

acid rain, smog and ozone depletion. Asia emits the most air pollution. Primary pollutants, such

as SO₂, NO_xand PM2.5 particles account for 48%, 39% and 46% of the world’s emissions,

respectively^A. The largest quantities of ground-level ozone are seen in the mid-latitudes and

tropical regions of the northern hemisphere, peaking in warm seasons. North America, the

Mediterranean, South Asia and East Asia are the ozone pollution hot spots.

Air pollution causes soil and water acidification. Atmospheric pollutants such as sulfur and

nitrogen result in acid deposition in soil and surface water acidification, damaging forest and

lake ecosystems, affecting forest growth and killing fish and other organisms. The soil and

water acidification affects ecosystems’ nutrient and carbon cycles, and the water supply on

which the earth, and human life, depend. Nitrogen deposition can also lead to eutrophication in

low-nutrient ecosystems, and thus drive substantial changes in biodiversity.

Ground-level ozone pollution affects the growth of animals and plants, reducing crop yields,

damaging forest health, and reducing biodiversity. Sensitivity to ozone varies among plant

species, putting species that are more sensitive to ozone at a competitive disadvantage, and

the less sensitive at a competitive advantage, as ozone levels increase. Current levels of

ground-level ozone will reduce output of major staple food crops such as wheat, soybeans,

corn and rice by as much as 2%-15%^B. In addition, ozone pollution slows the growth rate of

forest trees, reducing forests’ ability to absorb carbon dioxide, and weakening its potential to

help regulate climate change, creating conditions with increased potential for climate chain

reactions.

3.4.2 Freshwater Pollution

The quality of aquatic environments is worsening. Human activities are the main source of

water pollutants, including infectious agents, nutrients, heavy metals and organic chemicals.

These may be released from point sources (domestic, industrial or sewage pipe discharge,

spills from septic tank) and nonpoint sources (ground runoff from widespread agricultural

chemical use and rainfall and snow melt from urban areas)^C. On the global scale, the quality of

most river water is undergoing a deteriorating trend, since over 80% of wastewater is

discharged into the environment untreated. The organic pollutant content of rivers in South

America, Africa and Asia has been continually increasing, with pathogenic pollutants identified

in over one-third of rivers, where they are threaten human health, and interfere with irrigation,

C

industrial and other uses^D.

__________

ASource: International Energy Agency, Energy and Air Pollution, 2017.

B, CSource: United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Outlook 6, 2019.

DSource: UNEP, Towards a Pollution-Free Planet Background Report, 2017.

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Water pollution accelerates eutrophication. Human activities create large amounts of industrial

and domestic wastewater, which, often without proper treatment, enters slow-flowing water

bodies such as lakes, estuaries, and bays, contributing to deposition of nutrients such as

nitrogen and phosphorus. This triggers rapid reproduction of algae and other plankton,

decreasing the oxygen dissolved in the water. This reduction in water quality often leads to

mass die-offs of fish and other creatures.

Organic pollutants, heavy metals and other water pollution harm aquatic organisms. Even

biodegradable organic pollutants can deplete water oxygen, kill fish, and trigger the release of

heavy metals from bottom sediments towards surface water. Heavy metals, widely used in the

industrial and agricultural sectors, are toxic to aquatic organisms. New pollutants of concern

include other synthetic compounds. For example, the newly discovered chitin insecticides are

toxic to most arthropods and invertebrates, as is fipronil to fish.

3.4.3 Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is becoming increasingly serious. Industrialization, war, mining and intensive

agricultural development have all caused serious soil pollution worldwide. Specifically, the

main sources of soil pollution include industrial and mining activities, domestic garbage and

waste, agricultural pesticides, fertilizers, vehicle emissions and plastics^A. Between 2000 and

2017, the use of pesticides increased by 75%. In 2018, global use of synthetic nitrogen

fertilizers reached 109 million tons. The use of plastics in agriculture has also substantially

increased. In 2019, the EU agricultural sector alone consumed 708000 tons of non-packaging

plastics. Waste generation is also increasing from year to year. At present, about 2 billion tons

of waste are generated globally every year. This Figure is expected to increase to 3.4 billion

tons by 2050, as population growth and urbanization continue^B.

Soil pollution threatens the survival and reproduction of species, as well as their habitats. On

the one hand, inorganic pollutants such as heavy metals and organic pollutants in the soil can

be directly toxic to organisms, and their carcinogenesis, teratogenesis and mutagenesis,

together with reproductive toxicity can be enough to deprive organisms of the ability to survive

and multiply. Soil pollutants can also undergo biological concentration, thereby affecting the

survival and reproduction of organisms at the top of the food chain. On the other hand, soil

pollution causes changes in the surrounding environment and deprives species of living

environments. Contaminated sites such as mining areas and e-waste dumps are often bare of

grass due to an accumulation of soil pollutants in microorganisms, disrupting their metabolic

processes at a cellular level and altering or even reducing the diversity of microbial

communities, weakening the functioning of soil ecosystems.

3.4.4 Marine Pollution

The marine environment is threatened by marine litter, which refers to persistent, man-made or

otherwise processed solid waste found in the marine and coastal environment. This has now

__________

A, BSource: Global Assessment of Soil Pollution, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and

United Nations Environment Programme, 2021.

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been discovered to be widely distributed in the depths and along the bottom of every ocean.

Three-quarters of marine litter is plastic. In 2010, 192 coastal countries produced 275 million

tons of plastic waste, with 4.8-12.7 million tons entering the ocean^A. It is estimated that the

world’s oceans now contain over 5 trillion “microplastics”, with a total weight of 250000 tons. If

we continue to produce plastic at the current speed, the amount of plastic in the ocean will

exceed the total amount of fish by 2050.

Marine plastic poses a threat to the survival of marine species and to marine biodiversity. On

the one hand, plastic directly affects the survival prospects of marine organisms. Studies

indicate that over 800 marine and coastal species are harmed by eating or being trapped by

plastic^B. Between 2012 and 2016, the proportions of aquatic mammals and seabirds affected

by the intake of marine litter increased from 26% and 38%, respectively, to 40% and 44%. On

the other hand, microplastics, to which heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and new

highly toxic organic pollutants can adhere, have caused great harm to marine biodiversity.

Studies have shown that the number of microplastics in the ocean is huge, and the microbial

biomass on their surface is estimated at 1000-15000 tons^C. Under the action of ocean currents

and tides, microorganisms accumulated on microplastics migrate long distances across the

sea, increasing marine microorganisms’ opportunities for migration and spread, and leading to

invasion by alien species^D. Organisms can also be ingested by, or have direct contact with,

BCD

microplastic-borne pathogens, triggering toxicological effects.

3.5 Invasive Alien Species

Invasive alien species refers to the formation of wild populations of alien species through

reproduction after they have settled into new habitats. This can pose a serious threat to the

local ecological balance and local species. Invasive alien species can result from natural

proliferation or human introduction, with the latter accounting for 90% of cases^E. Generally, in

areas with more developed transportation, both unintentional and intentional human

introduction of alien species is more likely. Areas with lower biodiversity are also more prone to

alien species invasion, due to their lack of natural enemies. Thus, the places most prone to

invasion of alien species include: ① areas near transportation infrastructure such as ports,

railways, and highways; ② forest and grassland habitats subject to serious human

intervention; ③ waters, farmlands, and pastures with simply structured habitats; ④ habitats

already damaged by natural disasters.

__________

A, BSource: United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Outlook 6, 2019.

CSource: Zettler E R, Mincer T J, Amaral-Zettler L A, Life in the “Plastisphere”:Microbial communities on plastic

marine debris. Environmental Science & Technology, 2013, 47(13): 7137-7146.

DSource: Harrison J P, Sapp M, Schratzberger M, et al., Interactions between microorganisms and marine

microplastics: A call for research. Marine Technology Society Journal, 2011, 45(2): 12-20. DOI:10.4031/

MTSJ.45.2.2.

ESource: Wang Kanglin, Li Lianfang, Introduction to Biodiversity, Beijing: Science Press, 2020.

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Invasive species’ ability to outcompete native species implies that they can disrupt the balance

of ecosystems, causing loss of biodiversity. Invasive species often feature strong reproductive

ability, rapid growth, and high population density. They may also poses greater environmental

tolerance and genetic variability than native species, allowing them to become dominant

species by out-competing, predating upon, or interbreeding with native species, or by

spreading diseases to native species, destroying existing biological chains, potentially even

altering the local water and soil environment and ecosystem, thereby threatening the survival

and development of local species. It should be emphasized that although the probability of an

alien species become an invasive species is only about 1 in 1000, when this occurs it is

extremely harmful to biodiversity. In 2015, 18.4% of the world’s 941 endangered animals were

threatened by invasive alien species^A.

3.5.1 Unintentional Human Introduction of Alien Species

During transportation, travelling and engineering construction, alien species can be spread via

transportation, ballast water^B, and artificial canals:

Terrestrial creatures can “hitchhike”. Since the Great Nautical Era, animals such as rats,

snakes, and insects have snuck onto many ocean islands, threatening the survival of local

species. For example, the brown tree snake, which arrived on Guam via a US military transport

ship during World War II, caused the extinction of almost all birds and most lizards on that

island. On the Pacific Ocean’s Rat Islands, in the Aleutians, brown (Norway) rats introduced by

Japanese transport ships caused the extinction of 60% of local birds and reptiles.

Ballast water can “smuggle in” aquatic animals. The rapid development of the offshore oil and

other transportation industries has exacerbated the problem of introduction of alien species via

ballast water. The International Maritime Organization estimates that over 10 billion tons of

ballast water is transported by ships worldwide every year, facilitating invasion by over 10000

species. For example, the comb jelly trapped in the ballast water of American transport ships

were transported to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, causing the collapse of the local

fishery.

Removal by man of natural barriers to biological migration. Infrastructure such as canals can

remove the natural barriers hindering animal migration, thus accelerating invasion of alien

species. For example, in the early 20th century, lampreys entered the Great Lakes of North

America via canals, causing the extinction of many local fish species, including whitespotted

char and whitefish, disrupting the lakes’ original population structure, and causing billions of

dollars worth of losses each year.

__________

ASource: Wang Kanglin, Li Lianfang, Introduction to Biodiversity, Beijing: Science Press, 2020.

BBallast water refers to the seawater sucked in and discharged by shipping vessels to change the draft and

maintain the stability of the hull.

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Blood-sucking Lampreys

3.5.2 Deliberate Human Introduction of Alien Species

Human beings may cause loss of local biodiversity by deliberately introducing alien species,

for reasons including agriculture, forestry, fishery, animal husbandry, ornamental plants or pets

usage, medicinal usage and environmental management.

Introduction of alien species for agriculture, forestry, fishery and animal husbandry purposes. In

the 1950s and 1960s, one example of this occurred when the African snook was introduced

into Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa, in order to increase fishery production. During the

20 years that followed, two-thirds of the 300 species of fish unique to that area became extinct.

Introduction of alien species for cosmetic purposes, or for keeping as pets. The Burmese

python, for example, was introduced into southern Florida in the United States as a pet. After

these 5-meter-long creatures were released into swamps, numerous animal populations,

including birds, alligators, cottontail rabbits and gray foxes, suffered from their excessive

predation.

Introduction of alien species for medicinal usage. As Datura metel contains alkaloids with

anesthetic effects, it has been introduced to many countries as a medicinal plant. Easy

blooming, this plant produces large amounts of fruit and propagates well, tending to overrun its

habitat. Nowadays, Datura metel has been planted in more than 100 countries and become an

infamous invasive species. In Hong Kong, China, it is listed as one of “Four Poisonous Weeds”

due to the severe damage it can cause to local ground vegetation.

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Burmese Python

Introduction of alien species for environmental management purposes. The United States, for

example, deliberately introduced freshwater fish such as silver carp, grass carp, carp, and

dace from Asia, in order to control water pollution. Lacking natural enemies, and not favored by

Americans as a food source, these freshwater fish ran rampant in local water bodies, seriously

threatening the US’ freshwater ecosystem,.

Asian Carp

3.5.3 Invasion of Alien Species Indirectly Triggered by Climate Change

Climate change can exacerbate invasion by microorganisms. On the one hand, increasing

global sea surface temperatures tends to induce bigger, more severe hurricanes. In 2004, a

fungus capable of causing soybean rust, a major soybean disease, was carried from Brazil to

the continental United States by a severe hurricane, posing a great threat to soybeans and

other plant species there. On the other hand, global sea surface temperature increases will

tend to cause longer, more severe droughts, allowing the dust clouds above the oceans to

increase in size. Aspergillus sydowii, a fungus originating in the Sahara Desert, was swept into

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a huge dust cloud over the Atlantic Ocean by the trade winds, and floated from the west coast

of Africa into the Caribbean Sea, where it caused a deadly infectious disease in a local species

of scallop.

Species migration triggered by climate change can cause invasion of alien species. As

mentioned in 3.3, climate warming forces some heat-sensitive species to migrate to higher

latitudes or altitudes, while also allowing some heat-loving species to become more widely

distributed. These alien species moving into new habitats are likely to upset their existing

ecological balance, posing a threat to native species. For example, since the year 2000,

warmer winters in Colorado, the United States, have provided living conditions suitable for

mountain pine beetles, which have destroyed 60% of the local lodgepole pines^A.

3.5.4 Invasion of Genetically Modified Organisms

Genetically modified crops can cause invasion of alien species. Genetically modified crops are

now having an imaginable impact on human society. In the United States in 2001, 26% of corn

and 69% of cotton was genetically modified, as were over 80% of soybeans in 2005^B. The

pollen of genetically modified crops may fertilize wild relatives, producing new species with

greater fitness than their wild parents, leading to the extinction of the original species. Genes

from genetically modified rapeseed and maize have already been found in non-genetically

modified ones, which is very worrying.

Genetically modified animals may endanger related species. For example, genetically modified

salmon cannot adapt well to the wild, but their larger size gives them a mating advantage over

wild salmon. They can mate with wild individuals with great success, giving rise to large

numbers of fertile offspring with poor environmental adaptability. This can lead to a reduction in

local salmon populations, and eventually their extinction.

3.6 Climate Change Is Increasingly Becoming the Overall Driver of the

Biodiversity Crisis

Climate change is increasingly damaging biodiversity. Since the Industrial Revolution, the

massive development and use of fossil energy has led to an imbalance in the Earth’s carbon

cycle, causing rising temperatures, ocean acidification, glacier melting, and increasingly

frequent extreme weather disasters worldwide. Between 2016 and 2020, climate disasters

such as extreme weather and high temperatures became the world’s major crises. The deadly

“gray rhino” of climate crisis is charging towards us^C: during the next few decades, the impact

of climate change on biodiversity will only increase. According to UNEP research, by the end of

this century, up to one-fifth of wild species will be at risk of extinction due to climate change,

with the highest rate of species disappearance seen in certain “hot spots for biodiversity.”

Coping with global climate change and achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement will make

vital contributions to biodiversity protection.

__________

ASource: G. Tyler Miller, Scott Spoolman, Living in the Environment, Harbin: Harbin Press, 2018.

BSource: Eric Chivian and Aaron Bernstein, Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity,

Beijing: Science Press, 2019.

CSource: World Economic Forum (WEF), The Global Risks Report 2020 (15th Edition), 2020.

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Climate change is impacting biodiversity as a whole. On the one hand, drivers such as habitat

loss and excessive consumption of biological resources have impacts which are often limited

in geographical area, while climate change, by contrast can simultaneously profoundly affect

the Earth’s atmosphere (abnormal temperatures), hydrosphere (ocean acidification),

cryosphere (glacial melting) and lithosphere (desertification) as a whole, exerting global,

fundamental and far-reaching effects on biodiversity. On the other hand, climate change will

create chain reactions involving other drivers, disrupting the dynamic balance of the biosphere,

and seriously threatening biodiversity: ① Climate change will alter the structure and function

of ecosystems, resulting in reductions in forest area, grassland desertification, shrinkage of

mangroves and coral reefs, and destruction of other habitats. ② Climate change will intensify

extreme weather disasters such as torrential rains and typhoons, likely releasing large

quantities of industrial and agricultural chemicals and biological waste into the environment,

causing serious pollution. For example, in the first half of 1993, summer rainstorms caused by

El Niño resulted in the Mississippi River bursting its banks. About 93000 square kilometers of

land in nine states of the American Midwest were flooded, and tons of toxic chemicals and

excessive nutrients were released into the Gulf of Mexico, killing countless fish and mollusks,

and forming a hypoxic “dead zone”^A. ③ Climate change will cause longer and more severe

droughts or floods in certain areas, decreasing food production, stimulating further excessive

hunting of wild animals by humans. ④ Climate change will also change species distributions,

life cycles, and community structures, indirectly aggravating invasion of alien species.

Energy is the root cause of the climate crisis. Meteorological observations and scientific

research indicate that the massive use of fossil energy by mankind since the Industrial

Revolution is the root cause underlying the world’s increasingly severe climate change^B. The

latest IPCC research report stresses that it is very clear that atmospheric, oceanic and

terrestrial warming has been caused by human activities. The heat wave in Siberia in 2020, and

the intense heat experienced by Asia in 2016, would not have occurred without the burning of

fossil fuels. Based on both the current and long run situations, energy is key to solving the

biodiversity crisis, and green and low-carbon development must continue as rapidly as

possible.

__________

ASource: Eric Chivian and Aaron Bernstein, Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity,

Beijing: Science Press, 2019.

BSource: Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation Organization, Resolving the Crisis,

Beijing: China Electric Power Press, 2020.

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Unsustainable Energy Development: an Important Cause of the Biodiversity Crisis

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Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels have become the dominant energy

source, but excessive long-term exploitation is rendering these resources

increasingly scarce worldwide. In many countries, fossil fuel-intensive economic

systems have created a severe problem of “carbon lock-in”^A, greatly hindering

the world’s green and low-carbon transition, and sustainable development.

Fossil energy produces large amounts of greenhouse gases and harmful

substances during its exploitation, processing, conversion and use, aggravating

climate change, polluting air, water, soil and marine environments, causing

destruction and fragmentation of biological habitats, and severely threatening

biodiversity. Long-distance mass transportation of fossil fuels also increases the

risk of biological invasion. Furthermore, the excessive exploitation and utilization

of bioenergy in some areas, combined with poor electricity access, has also led

to excessive consumption of biological resources including forestry, crops, and

animals. Figure 4.1 summarizes the “energy-driver-biodiversity” relationships.

Figure 4.1 Unsustainable Energy Development Affects Biodiversity

Irrational energy development and utilization has been playing the decisive

overall role in climate change and environmental pollution, leading to habitat loss,

biological resource depletion, and biological invasion to varying extents. It is

also the most important factor in the destruction of biodiversity.

__________

ACarbon lock-in refers to the tendency for carbon-intensive energy, technology and infrastructure systems to

persist once adopted, hindering transformation to a more advanced, lower-carbon mode and path of

development.

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4.1 Exacerbation of Climate Change

4.1.1 Significant Amounts of CO₂Produced by Fossil Fuel Combustion

Fossil fuel combustion creates the vast majority of the world’s CO₂emissions. In 2019, carbon

dioxide accounted for 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions, with fossil energy-related

carbon dioxide emissions accounting for about 86% of the global total^A, as shown in Figure 4.2.

Addressing fossil fuel-related emissions is thus clearly the decisive factor in tackling the

climate change issue.

Figure 4.2 Breakdown of Global Greenhouse Gas and CO₂Emissions, 2019

The scale and significance of fossil fuel-related carbon emissions has continuously increased.

As shown in Figure 4.3, the doubling of global carbon dioxide emissions between 1970 and

2019 was predominantly due to rapid growth in fossil fuel usage. During the same period, the

proportion of carbon dioxide emissions accounted for by fossil fuels also increased. In 2019,

fossil fuels accounted for about 86% of the global carbon dioxide emissions, an increase from

74% in 1970. Under current trends, the proportion of emissions from coal and natural gas will

continue to increase, posing a serious challenge to future global energy transition and to

emission reduction efforts.

In terms of sectors, Figure 4.4 shows that the fossil energy intensive energy, industry, and

transportation sectors are mainly responsible for CO₂emissions. In 2019, carbon emissions

from these sectors accounted for 41%, 20%, and 14%, of the world total, respectively^B.

In terms of energy types, coal has the highest carbon emission coefficient, as shown in

Figure 4.5. Combustion of one TCE of coal, oil, and natural gas produce around 2.77 tons, 2.15

tons, and 1.65 tons of CO₂, respectively. In 2015, coal accounted for 28% of global primary

energy consumption, while contributing 45% to CO₂emissions^C

.

B

__________

A, BSource: United Nations Environment Programme, Emissions Gap Report 2020, 2020.

CSource: International Energy Agency, CO₂Emissions from Fuel Combustion 2017, 2017.

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Figure 4.3 Global CO₂Emissions, Total & Breakdown, 1850-2019^A

Figure 4.4 Sectoral Global CO₂Emissions, 2019

Figure 4.5 Global Fossil Energy Consumption

and CO₂Emissions, 2015

__________

ASource: Global Carbon Project, Global Carbon Budget, 2020.

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4.1.2 Large Amounts of Methane Are Produced during Fossil Fuel Production and

Utilization

The impact of methane cannot be ignored. Methane represents the second largest greenhouse

gas emission after CO₂. During the past 20 years, methane has contributed over 25% to global

warming^A, and compared to CO₂, exerts more “powerful” influence, with 84 times the ability of

CO₂to trap heat in the atmosphere per unit mass. The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (AR6)

indicates that global methane emissions have risen dramatically in recent years, and current

methane concentrations in the atmosphere are over 150% higher than pre-Industrial Revolution

levels, far above the safety threshold specified in the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5). In

spite of this, methane has received far less attention than CO₂and has not yet been included in

most countries’ climate commitments. To cope with global climate change, there is an urgent

need for all countries to pay greater attention to methane.

The main source of methane is production and use of fossil fuels. There are three main sources

of methane emissions: fossil fuels, such as oil and natural gas processing; landfills and waste

management; and animal husbandry. It is estimated that 110 million tons of methane are

generated each year during fossil fuel production and utilization, making this their main source.

① Methane is the main component of natural gas. About 8% of methane leaks into the

atmosphere during natural gas production, processing, storage, transmission and distribution.

② During coal formation, a large amounts of methane is captured in the bedrock; this

constitutes coal-bed methane (CBM). Some of this CBM can escape into the atmosphere

during mining. ③ The geological process of oil formation, like that of coal, produces large

amount of methane, which are released during oil extraction and refining. ④ Incomplete

combustion of fossil fuels can also produce methane. When fossil fuels are used for power

generation, heating or in automobiles, methane is emitted. ⑤ The development and utilization

of fossil fuels is intensifying other global changes, for example increasing the pace of

permafrost thawing, and the frequency of wildfires, further increasing global atmospheric

methane concentrations.

4.2 Environmental Pollution

4.2.1 Fresh Water and Soil Pollution due to Fossil Fuel Production

Coal production causes serious fresh water pollution. On the one hand, mine drainage during

coal mining causes water acidification. Coal slurry (mud) from coal washing, and coal ash from

coal combustion can cause serious pollution of fresh water. Given the current state of

technology, every ton of coal mined leads to the pollution of 1-1.5 m³of fresh water^B. On the

other hand, open-air stockpiling of coal gangue, fly ash and other solid wastes causes

secondary air, water, and soil pollution. These wastes are constantly generated during coal

mining, processing and utilization. Coal gangue generated during coal mining and washing

__________

ASource: IPCC, Climate Change 2021: Sixth Assessment Report, 2021.

BSource: Song Shijie, Analysis of deterioration of ecological environment in mine areas caused by coal mining

activity and countermeasures, Coal Processing and Comprehensive Utilization, 2007.

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Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

accounts for about 10%-15% of this production^A. Under normal conditions, solid coal waste is

naturally piled up, and exposed to rain, sunlight and wind. Thus, pollutants inside it are

released into rivers, air and soil, causing secondary pollution.

Shale gas development causes soil and freshwater pollution. During hydraulic fracking for

shale gas exploitation, 30-130 m³of wastewater is produced for every 1 million m³of natural

gas output. This waste water contains harmful chemical additives as well as hydrocarbons,

heavy metals and mineral salts leached from the reservoir rocks, and, if it leaches into aquifers,

can seriously damage the water environment^B. After fracking, the slurry produced remains,

containing large amounts of chemicals and toxic heavy metals, which can leak to some extent

during several processes, polluting the soil, groundwater, or surface water^C.

Column 4-1

Environmental Pollution Caused by

Coal Mining, South Africa

South Africa possesses abundant coal resources, with coal reserves of about 205.7

billion tons, accounting for some two-thirds of Africa’s total, and with proven reserves of

58.75 billion tons. South Africa ranks first in Africa and high worldwide in terms of annual

coal production.

Coal mining in South Africa has caused serious water and soil pollution. This has

rendered the Olifants River, which flows through the mining area, one of the most

polluted in the nation. Many fish and other animals have been killed by heavy metal

pollutants, such as lead and cadmium, in the river. The solid waste piles remaining after

coal mining not only encroach upon farmland, but also contribute to high heavy metal

concentrations in nearby soil, ruining many crops, such as corn, reducing food

production, and triggering food shortages.

Column 4-2

Environmental Pollution Due to Exploitation of

Marcellus Shale, United States

The Marcellus Shale in the United States is currently the world’s largest unconventional

gas field. Located in the eastern Appalachian Basin, it spans the states of New York,

Pennsylvania, West Virginia and eastern Ohio. The latest assessment report shows

exploitable reserves of 13.85 trillion m³, enough to supply US natural gas consumption

demand for over 20 years^D.

__________

ASource: Li Changsheng, Lei Zhongmin, Energy and Environmental Science, Taiyuan: Shanxi Economic

Publishing House, 2016.

BSource: Tian Lei, Liu Xiaoli, et al. Enlightenment from environmental risk control measures in the U.S. shale

gas development, Natural Gas Industry, 2013.

CSource: G. Tyler Miller, Scott Spoolman, Living in the Environment, Harbin: Harbin Press, 2018.

DSource: Xia Yuqiang, The Challenges of Water Resources and the Environmental Impact of Marcellus Shale

Gas Drilling, Science and Technology Review, 2010.

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Unsustainable Energy Development: an Important Cause of the Biodiversity Crisis

The exploitation of the Marcellus Shale in the United States has led to severe

environmental problems. Shale gas poses challenges in terms of water resources

(Figure 1). The field’s water consumption can be as high as 1% of Pennsylvania’s total

fresh water usage. The consumption of such large amounts of local surface or

groundwater significantly affects the survival prospects of local aquatic life, the operation

of fisheries, and urban and industrial water use^A. Shale gas can also cause serious

environmental pollution. The slurry produced by fracking can be stored in a variety of

ways with varying degrees of safety. In addition to the naturally generated salt, toxic

heavy metals and radioactive substances leached from the underground rock, this slurry

contains chemicals used in the fracking process, and if stored improperly, can leak,

causing soil and water pollution.

Figure 1 Exploitation of Shale

Crude oil exploitation can cause water and soil pollution. During crude oil production, storage,

transportation, refining, processing and usage, oil leakage can occur due to accidents,

abnormal operation, and equipment maintenance, causing environmental pollution. On the one

hand, petroleum changes the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Upon entering soil,

petroleum causes soil hardening and limits its wetting. Meanwhile, it reduces the availability of nitrogen

and phosphorus nutrients, changes the ratios of carbon-to-nitrogen and carbon-to-phosphorus in

soil’s organic matter, creates imbalances in normal soil environment functioning and causes

soil degradation. On the other hand, crude oil exploitation can pollute groundwater. The waste

water, waste mud and drilling fluid created during crude oil development contain heavy metals

and sulfides. These gradually penetrate into soil during long-term storage, polluting surface

and groundwater, hindering the growth of nearby crops and reducing their ability to resist plant

diseases and insects, thus lowering food production^B.

__________

ASource: Lu Hui, Bian Xiaobing, Lessons from North American shale gas development: How to mitigate such

associated environmental risks, Natural Gas Industry, 2016.

BSource: Zhu Linhai, et al., Ecological Effects of Oil Pollution on Soil-Plant Systems, Chinese Journal of

Applied & Environmental Biology, Volume 18, 2012.

075

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Column 4-3

Environmental Pollution Caused by Tar

Sands Mining, Alberta, Canada

Canada has rich tar sand resources. In the northwestern part of Alberta, Canada, there is

a vast area of boreal forest, the sandy soil beneath which account for three-quarters of

the world’s total reserves of tar sands^A.

Oil production from tar sands can create serious environmental hazards. Compared with

the exploitation of conventional light petroleum and crude oil locked in shale, tar sands

cause more serious damage to soil, water, and wildlife. Before extraction begins, the

coniferous forest needs to be cleared and a topsoil composed of sandy soil, rocks, peat

and clay removed to expose the tar sand deposits, with a huge negative impact on the

ecological environment (Figure 1). The processing of tar sands requires plentiful water

resources, and creates toxic sludge and waste water, which, stored in lake-sized tailing

reservoirs, can poison the migratory birds using them as sources of food and water.

Figure 1 Tar Sands Mining

4.2.2 Oil and Thermal Pollution Threatens Marine Ecological Security

Oil spills are an important cause of marine ecological deterioration. A total of 34% of the world’s

oil resources come from the sea, and over 50% of oil is transported by sea, generating about

10 million tons of petroleum pollutants annually due to leakage from offshore oil platforms, oil

tanker accidents, and shipping pollution. On the one hand, thin oil slicks formed on the water

surface block gas exchange with the atmosphere, reducing the water oxygen concentration,

__________

ASource: G. Tyler Miller, Scott Spoolman, Living in the Environment, Harbin: Harbin Press, 2018.

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Unsustainable Energy Development: an Important Cause of the Biodiversity Crisis

and inhibiting the growth of marine organisms. Oil slicks also weaken solar radiation

penetration into the sea, affecting marine plants’ photosynthesis. On the other hand, oil

adheres to fish, algae and plankton, causing death and poor growth of marine life, and

damaging marine organisms’ living environment^A.

Column 4-4

“Deepwater Horizon” Drilling Rig Oil Spill,

Gulf of Mexico, United States

The oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico was one of the worst environmental disasters in world

history. On April 20, 2010, the “Deepwater Horizon” drilling rig, rented by BP, exploded,

killing 11 oil workers^B. During the following 87 days, millions of gallons of oil leaked into

the Gulf of Mexico. After the accident, the fish populations in nearby waters decreased

by 50%-80%, rare whale numbers decreased by 22%, and at least 800000 birds and

170000 sea turtles died. The environmental pollution caused by this oil spill is causing

harm to this day, and is transmitted to humans via the food chain. In 2018, high levels of

oil pollution were still found in thousands of fish species in the affected waters, including

yellowfin tuna, tilefish, red drum and other popular seafood. Between 2011 and 2017, the

concentration of oil in the liver tissue and bile of local blue-and-yellow grouper fish

increased by over 800%.

The cooling water discharged from coastal power stations creates serious thermal pollution. A

thermal power plant with 1GW installed capacity discharges cooling water at a rate of about

30-50 m³/s; a nuclear power plant with the same installed capacity discharges approximately

50% more. The cooling water discharged into the sea is 6-11℃ above the ambient water

temperature^C.

Thermal pollution has a serious impact on marine organisms. On the one hand, the higher

temperature of the water body accelerates the biodegradation of organic matter and the

circulation of nutrients. Overgrowth of algae can lead to eutrophication. On the other hand,

increased water temperatures will lower the water’s dissolved oxygen content, raising the

metabolic rate of its fish, and shortening or ending their lives due to scarcity of oxygen.

Moreover, fish spawn in a small range of substrates at suitable temperatures; increased water

temperatures may curtail and or inhibit their ovulation^D.

__________

A, DSource: Zuo Xianwen, Pollution and Protection of the Ocean, Guangzhou: World Publishing Guangdong,

2010.

BSource: BP Group, Sustainability Report 2010 Highlights, 2011.

CSource: Liu Yongye, et al., Thermal Pollution Control Countermeasures for Nuclear Power Plants’ Thermal

Discharge, Atomic Energy Science and Technology, Volume 43, 2009.

077

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

Nuclear waste water from nuclear power plant accidents damages marine ecological security.

Nuclear waste water contains radioactive substances such as iodine-131, strontium-90, and

cesium-137. Upon entering the ocean, these radioactive substances seriously affect the

marine environment, causing genetic mutations in marine organisms. Great effort and long

periods of time are necessary to eliminate nuclear pollution from the ocean, as most radioactive

substances have long half-lives, imposing great economic costs at a regional level.

Column 4-5

Nuclear Accident, Fukushima, Japan

On March 11, 2011, a major accident occurred at the First Fukushima Nuclear Power

Plant on the northeastern coast of Japan. In the wake of a massive earthquake in the

coastal waters of Japan’s Tohoku region, a severe tsunami occurred. The huge (up to

14.7 meters tall) wave, swept over the nuclear plant’s seawall, causing flooding, which in

turn caused the reactor core’s emergency cooling system to fail, and also flooded its

backup diesel generator. The failure of the emergency cooling system caused

excessively high temperatures in the reactor core, creating large amounts of hydrogen.

This caused several explosions blowing off the reactor building roof, and the atmosphere

and nearby sea waters suffered radioactive contamination.

Nuclear waste water produced by the Fukushima disaster harmed marine ecological

security. Monitoring results on March 28, 2011 showed that cesium-137 in the seawater

near the First Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant was 20 times normal levels, and

iodine-131 also far exceeded normal levels, posing a significant threat to the living

environment for marine life. Above a certain concentration, the radioactive isotopes of

iodine and cesium deliver radiation doses that can kill aquatic animals or affect their

fertility. The nuclear accident in Fukushima made over 110000 people homeless, and

continues to subject some areas to high levels of radioactive pollution, making them

unlikely to be habitable for humans and other creatures for the next 20 years.

4.2.3 Air Pollution Caused by Fossil Fuel Combustion

Fossil fuel combustion and the primary utilization of biomass are the main sources of air

pollutants. The combustion of fossil fuels and biomass produces over 90% of sulfur dioxide

(SO₂) and nitrogen oxide (NO_x) pollution, and 85% of particulate (PM2.5) pollution. Of these,

SO₂and NO_xare the main components of acid rain, while PM2.5 and secondary pollutants

generated by SO₂and NO_xare the main components of smog. The sources and composition of

the three major air pollutants in 2015 worldwide are shown in Figure 4.6.

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Unsustainable Energy Development: an Important Cause of the Biodiversity Crisis

Figure 4.6 Emissions and Sources of the World’s Three Major Pollutants, 2015^A

Different industry sectors contribute differently to the various air pollutants. At present, about

80 million tons of SO₂are emitted annually worldwide^B. Of this, the power generation and

industrial sectors account for 33% and 45%, respectively. Of global annual NO_xemissions of

110 million tons, the transportation and industrial sectors account for 52% and 26%,

respectively. About half of the 40 million tons of global annual PM2.5 emissions come from

residential sector energy consumption.

Different fossil fuel energy types have varying effects on air pollution. As shown in Figure 4.7,

coal is the main source of SO₂emissions, accounting for about 55% of the total. On average,

100 tons of SO₂is produced for every 10000 tons of coal burned. Oil is the main source of NO_x

emissions, accounting for about 70% of the total. On average, 170 tons of NO_xemissions is

produced for every 10000 tons of oil burned. The primary utilization of biomass energy is the

main source of PM2.5 emissions, accounting for about 65% of the total. On average, 123 tons

of PM2.5 particles are produced for every 10000 tons of biomass burned.

Figure 4.7 Emission Factors and Source Shares for Three Major Air Pollutants, 2015 (1)^C

__________

A, B, CSource: International Energy Agency, Energy and Air Pollution, 2016.

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Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

Figure 4.7 Emission Factors and Source Shares for Three Major Air Pollutants, 2015 (2)^A

Column 4-6

Acid Rain in Europe

Acid rain is one of Europe’s major environmental problems. In the 60s, Europe

established the European Air Chemistry Network (EACN), which discovered that areas

affected by acid rain with a pH of less than 4.0 were mostly situated in low-lying regions,

such as the Netherlands, Denmark, and Belgium. Swedish scientist Odén, through study

of chemical changes in European weather, rainfall, lakes and soil verified that large areas

of the continent were being subjected to acid rain.

Acid rain harms aquatic ecosystems. Most fish cannot survive in water with a pH of less

than 4.5. Also, when acid precipitation flows through porous soil, it releases aluminum

ions (Al³⁺) adsorbed by minerals in the soil, carrying them into lakes, streams, wetlands

and other water bodies. Aluminum ions entering the water body stimulate the gills of

many kinds of fish to secrete copious amounts of mucus, which can block their gills,

suffocating them. High acidity has caused the disappearance of fish from thousands of

lakes in Norway and Sweden.

Acid rain affects forest growth. Acid rain leaches nutrients and minerals vital to plants,

such as calcium and magnesium, out of the soil, releasing aluminum, lead, cadmium,

and mercury ions, which, in a forest, can poison the trees (Figure 1). As a result of acid

rain, by 1983, 34% of the original 74000 square kilometers of German forest land was

infected with blight, with an annual tree mortality rate that accounted for 21% of the tree

“birth” rate. The forests’ previous flourishing vitality was gone forever, leaving only a

lifeless Black Forest- in its stead.

__________

ASource: International Energy Agency, Energy and Air Pollution, 2016.

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Unsustainable Energy Development: an Important Cause of the Biodiversity Crisis

Figure 1 Severe Corrosion of European Forests Caused by Acid Rain

Column 4-7

Smog’s Effects on Crop Growth

Smog impedes crop photosynthesis, which is an important source of the materials and

energy they require for growth. Thus smog intensity directly affects crops’ growth,

development and yields. In foggy, hazy weather, when air flow is poor, smog particles

block and absorb light reducing its intensity. This decrease in light intensity directly

affects crops’ rate of photosynthesis, impeding the production of nutrients and energy

required for their growth, affecting crops’ normal growth and development, and

ultimately reducing their yield.

Smog also impairs crops’ respiration. On smoggy days, when the air has excessively

high concentrations of particles and is circulating poorly, large numbers of solid particles,

liquid droplets and harmful gases can be absorbed into crops via their stomata.

Excessive inhalation of harmful gases can lead to imbalances in crops’ carbon

dioxide-to-oxygen ratios, adversely affecting their photosynthesis and respiration,

interfering with their normal metabolism, harming their healthy growth and development,

and even causing yellowing, withering or death of leaves in more serious cases^A.

4.3 Habitat Loss

4.3.1 Exploitation of Fossil Energy Intensifies Water and Soil Erosion in Mining Areas

The exploitation of fossil energy has caused ground collapse and serious soil erosion. Coal

mining leads to the formation of goals (abandoned mine shafts etc.) underground, weakening

__________

ASource: LV Mengyu, et al., Influence Factor Analysis of Fog and Haze Weather on Crops, 2016.

081

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

the support for rocks and soil above, potentially causing ground collapse. In some areas with

soft rock strata, around 3000 square meters of land can collapse for every 10000 tons of coal

mined^A. The exploitation of fossil energy causes serious soil erosion. During surface

excavation, soil residue piles up, and land and vegetation are destroyed, reducing land

vegetation coverage and soil erosion resistance, increasing water and soil erosion, and

damaging the ecological environment^B.

Column 4-8

Water and Soil Erosion,

Huainan Mining Area, China

The Huainan mining area is rich in coal resources. Located in the hinterland of

economically-developed eastern China, Huainan mining area spans the north-central

region of Anhui Province, including the three cities of Huainan, Fuyang and Bozhou. It

enjoys geographical advantages and abundant coal resources. With dimensions of

about 70 kilometers East-West and 25 kilometers North-South, its roughly 1600 square

kilometer area contains coal reserves of 28.5 billion tons. It is currently the coal field with

the highest grade coal and the largest reserves in eastern and southern China^C.

Extensive coal exploitation has led to soil erosion. Years of mining has caused an area of

120 square kilometers, accounting for about 7.5% of the total mining area, to collapse.

Land subsidence has led to a significant decrease of usable land area, and to water and

soil erosion. Moreover, large tracts of water tend to accumulate in subsided areas,

eroding the topsoil and depleting its nutrients, and leading to water pollution when these

eventually precipitate, triggering water crises and threatening biodiversity.

China actively contributed to environmental governance. In September 2012, Anhui

Province issued the Comprehensive Treatment Plan against Coal Mining Subsidence

Areas in Six Cities in Northern Anhui Province (2012-2020). The document clarified

guideline and goals for comprehensive treatment of coal mining subsidence areas and

put forward such measures as land reclamation, water system administration, and

backfilling of mined-out areas. The 163700 m²Laolongyan Reservoir ecological zone, for

example, is included in the resource-depleted mining area rehabilitation project.

Following the principle of “landscaping based on mountains, waters, and surrounding

environments”, Huainan has finished river dredging, dam reinforcement, water quality

__________

ASource: Luo Kaisha et al., Research on Water Resources Utilization in Huainan Mining Area, Conference on

Environmental Pollution and Public Health, 2010.

BSource: Song Shijie, Analysis of mine area ecological environment deterioration caused by coal mining

activity, and its prevention, Coal Processing and Comprehensive Utilization, 2007.

CSource: Chen Yongchun, Investigation on using mining subsidence area to build a reservoir in Huainan Coal

Mining Area, Journal of China Coal Society, 2016.

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Unsustainable Energy Development: an Important Cause of the Biodiversity Crisis

improvement, and afforestation and established an optimal living environment featuring

harmonious coexistence of people and nature. Thanks to the rehabilitation project, the

city has turned green as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Huainan transformed from a city of coal back to greenness

4.3.2 Exploitation of Fossil Energy Leads to Habitat Fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation caused by fossil energy exploitation damages biodiversity. The

exploitation and transportation of fossil energy requires the construction of numerous roads

and pipelines, forming barriers which divide large, integral biological environments into smaller,

isolated ones. That habitat fragmentation limits the range of activities available to animals,

hindering their foraging, mating etc., and reducing their population growth.

Column 4-9

Oil and Gas Pipeline Network Construction

Caused Habitat Fragmentation, Nigeria

The construction of oil and gas pipeline networks in Nigeria has caused large-scale

habitat destruction. For Nigeria, Africa’s largest oil producer and third largest natural gas

producer, the oil and gas industry is the mainstay of the national economy. In 2014,

Nigeria’s revenue from oil and gas exports reached nearly 87 billion US dollars,

accounting for over 95% of foreign currency earnings. The mangrove forest in the Niger

Delta, where most of Nigerian oil development takes place, is one of the most

endangered habitats in the world. Over the years, multinational oil companies have

removed mangroves on a large scale for oil exploration, and for construction of oil

pipelines and roads. About 5%-10% of mangrove ecosystems have been severely

damaged, destroying to environment and downsizing the habitats for many species,

leaving them endangered^A.

__________

ASource: Piao Yingji, Social Responsibility for Multinational Oil Companies and Sustainable Development in

Nigeria, West Asia and Africa, 2017.

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Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

4.3.3 Fossil Energy Exploitation and Use Consumes Significant Water Resources

Global water consumption has increased six times in the past 100 years, and the demand for

water resources is increasing at a rate of 1% per year. By the middle of the 21st century, more

than 2 billion people will live in countries with water scarcity^A. Long-term water shortage can

cause drought and desertification, damaging the ecological environment and endangering

biodiversity.

The shortage of fresh water is closely related to fossil energy use. As shown in Figure 4.8, fossil

energy and nuclear power generation were the energy industries using the most water. In 2016,

water consumption related to power generation equipment, cooling and operation accounted

for 86% of the global energy industry total. Coal-fired power plants consume 19 billion m³of

water annually worldwide, equal to the annual consumption of 1 billion people^B. Moreover,

primary energy development (including the exploitation, processing and transportation of

petroleum, coal, and natural gas) and biomass irrigation accounted for 12% of total global

energy industry water consumption. For example, during extraction of shale gas by fracking, a

single horizontal well consumes 7500-27000 cubic meters of water during the entire production

cycle ^C. Finally, solar, wind, geothermal, biomass and other renewable energy power

generation account for only 2% of the energy industry’s water consumption^D.

Figure 4.8 Global Water Consumption by Energy Industry, 2016^E

__________

ASource: United Nations Water, United Nations World Water Development Report, 2012.

BSource: Greenpeace, How the Coal Industry is Aggravating the Global Water Crisis, 2016.

CSource: Lu Hui, Bian Xiaobing, Lessons from North American shale gas development : How to mitigate such

associated environmental risks, Natural Gas Industry, Issue 7, 2017.

DSource: UNESCO, United Nations World Water Development Report, 2021.

ESource: International Energy Agency, Water-Energy Nexus, 2016.

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Unsustainable Energy Development: an Important Cause of the Biodiversity Crisis

Column 4-10

Coal Industry Exacerbates

Global Fresh Water Crisis

In 2013, the global coal industry consumed approximately 22.7 billion m³of fresh water,

while the global water withdrawal was around 281 billion m³. The water consumed during

the mining of hard coal and lignite accounted for approximately 16% of the coal industry

total^A. Coal-fired power plants account for the largest proportion of water consumption,

84% of the coal industry total, and 90% of the total water withdrawal, as shown in Table 1

below. Coal-fired power plants consume 19 billion m³of water globally each year.

Assuming that a person needs 18.3 m³of water every year, the total water consumption

of the 8359 coal-fired power plants worldwide exceeds that necessary to meet the basic

needs of 1 billion people. Taking into consideration the amount of water used in hard

coal and lignite exploration, this usage soars to 22.7 billion m³/y, enough to meet the

basic water needs of 1.2 billion people^B.

Table 1 Fresh Water Usage of Global Coal-fired Power Generation, 2013

Average water

Installed capacity/quantity of

coal production

Average water use

(100 million m³/y )

Category

consumption

(100 million m³/y)

Coal-fired power plant

Hard coal production

Lignite production

Total water use

1811.45 GW

6357.43 Mt

2037.79 Mt

—

190.55

32.38

4.07

2552.02

32.38

229.12

2813.52

227.00

4.4 Excessive Biological Resource Consumption

4.4.1 Biomass Energy Development and Usage Causes Excessive Forest Resource

Consumption

The surge in demand for liquid biofuels is further threatening forest resources. The decline in

world oil reserves, and their rising prices, has stimulated worldwide interest in liquid biofuels^C.

Many countries and international organizations have set goals and policies concerning liquid

biofuel development. The European Union stipulated that 10% of fuel consumed for

transportation should come from liquid biofuels by 2020. The United States stipulates that

annual liquid biofuels production should reach 36 billion gallons by 2022. The International Civil

Aviation Organization (ICAO) proposes that liquid biofuels should account for half of the world’s

aviation fuel by 2050. The increasing global demand for liquid biofuels will translate into

__________

ASource: Biesheuvel, A. Greenpeace International, 2016.

BSource: Greenpeace, How the Coal Industry is Aggravating the Global Water Crisis, 2016.

CLiquid biofuels usually refers to bioethanol produced from crops such as corn, sugarcane or soybeans, or

biodiesel produced from rapeseed or palm oil.

085

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

continuous expansion of the areas of corn, oil palm and other energy plants under cultivation

for their production, resulting in the disappearance of massive forest resources. Global

demand for palm oil-containing biodiesel, for example, is expected to surge to 67 million tons

by 2030, six times higher than in 2018. For that reason, the world’s largest palm oil producing

countries, Indonesia and Malaysia, are set to eliminate 45000 square kilometers of rainforest,

equivalent to the area of the Netherlands^A.

4.4.2 Limited Electricity Access Leads to Tremendous Food Waste

Global food waste comes at the expense of great additional consumption of biological

resources. In 2017, 30% of the world’s food, equivalent to 10 eggs per person per day, was

wasted^B. Food waste causes not only excessive consumption of animal and plant resources

for the production of the food itself, but also excessive use of natural resources, such as land

and fresh water. In 2013, 14 million km²of land (more than the combined areas of Canada and

India) and 250 cubic kilometers of fresh water (about three times the volume of Lake Geneva)

were used to produce food that was never consumed^C.

Electricity shortages lead to serious food waste in developing countries. In developed

countries, over 40% of food is wasted at the retail and consumption stages, mainly due to

oversupply and poor consumption habits. However, in developing countries, food waste mostly

occurs in the early stages of the food supply chain, due mainly to outdated processing and

packaging technology, and insufficient refrigeration and cold chain logistics equipment^D, as

shown in Figure 4.9. Studies by the FAO show that if refrigerators could be widely used in

developing countries, about 25% of global food waste could be avoided^E. Electricity is

universally recognized as a necessity for food processing, packaging, storage and cold chain

transportation. Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia faced the most serious power

shortages globally, an important driver of inefficient food storage and food waste.

4.5 Increasing Risk of Biological Invasion

The large volume, long distance, and wide coverage of global fossil energy transportation

increases the risk of unintentional biological invasion caused by humans. In 2019, global oil

trade volumes reached 71 million barrels per day, of which two-thirds were transported by sea

tankers and one-third by pipelines^F. The global oil shipping network now covers all continents,

with major channels stretching from oil-producing regions, mainly in the Middle East, West

Africa and South America, to the United States, Europe and the Asia-Pacific region, especially

__________

ASource: Rainforest Foundation Norway, Driving deforestation: the impact of expanding palm oil demand

through biofuel policy, 2018.

BSource: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, SAVE FOOD: Global Initiative on Food

Loss and Waste Reduction, 2017.

CSource: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Food Wastage Footprint, 2013.

DSource: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Food Loss and Waste, 2011.

ESource: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, How Access to Energy Can Influence Food

Losses, 2016.

FSource: Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation Organization, ETI Integration, Beijing:

China Electric Power Press, 2020.

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Unsustainable Energy Development: an Important Cause of the Biodiversity Crisis

China. The global coal trade volume in 2019 was approximately 1.4 billion tons, of which coal

transported by sea accounted for more than 90%^A. The main coal shipping channels connect

the Asia Pacific coast with the Atlantic coasts of Europe and America. In addition, North America,

Europe, and former Soviet Union countries are connected for coal transportation via widespread

railway lines. During bulk transportation of fossil energy, organisms can be unintentionally

transferred between countries and regions, increasing the risk of biological invasion.

Figure 4.9 Food Waste by World Region

Column 4-11

Ballast Water Causes Biological Invasion

Large ships, such as oil tankers and coal carriers require several ballast tanks for

changing draft and maintaining hull stability. These tanks are loaded with or discharge

sea water, a process during which organisms, especially comb jelly, shrimp, crabs, and

mollusk larvae, in a certain area, are sucked in, before being discharged in another area,

creating a risk of biological invasion.

At present, worldwide shipping uses over 10 billion tons of ballast water each year,

providing global “travel” for over 10000 species of organism. A ship’s ballast water is

generally equivalent to 30%-40% of its cargo load, implying that a 300000-ton tanker can

suck in 100000 tons of ballast water. With the help of the huge volumes of ballast water

used during fossil energy shipping, countless marine organisms are “smuggled” all over

the world, increasing the risk of biological invasion. For example, zebra mussels moved

into US freshwater basins after arriving with Russian tankers on the coast. They have

multiplied in lakes in 19 states, severely reducing their dissolved oxygen levels and

posing a major threat to the survival and development of native species.

__________

ASource: Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation Organization, ETI Integration, Beijing:

China Electric Power Press, 2020.

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The development and utilization of fossil energy is aggravating climate change and indirectly

increasing the risk of biological invasion. Since the Industrial Revolution, human beings have

used fossil energy in large quantities via combustion, emitting huge volumes of greenhouse

gases, and creating the root cause for the aggravation of global climate change. In recent

years, the climate crisis has triggered more severe hurricanes, longer-lasting droughts and

other weather disasters, also increasing the possibility of long-distance wind-borne microbe

transmission. Climate change has also forced more rapid migration of species, upset the

ecological balance, threatened native species and significantly increased the risk of biological

invasion.

4.6 Prioritizing Fossil Energy Development Seriously Threatens

Biodiversity

Fossil fuels have a significant impact on climate change, environmental pollution, habitat loss,

excessive consumption of biological resources, invasion of alien species, and other key drivers

of biodiversity loss. ① To aggravate climate change. Fossil fuels development and utilization

are a major source of greenhouse gas emissions such as CO₂and methane. In particular, as

climate change increasingly becomes a significant driver of biodiversity loss, fossil fuels pose

a grave threat to biodiversity. ② To pollute the environment. Fossil fuels combustion is the

main source of three major air pollutant emissions. Air pollutants cause acid rain and haze

through the atmospheric and water cycles, spreading to different habitats and causing global

or regional pollution. Also, the development of fossil fuels, such as coal and shale gas, will

generate a great deal of wastewater. The transportation, conversion, and use of fossil fuels will

produce oil spills and high-temperature hot water, which are also important causes of soil, fresh

water, and marine pollution. ③ To cause habitat loss. The exploitation of fossil fuels brings

about ground subsidence, water and soil erosion, and habitat fragmentation, while consuming

large amounts of freshwater resources and seriously destroying habitats around mining areas.

④ To excessively consume biological resources. In less developed regions, such as Africa,

Asia, and Central and South America, over-exploitation and utilization of biomass energy, low

accessibility of electricity, and other problems have triggered deforestation and the massive

waste of food, leading to excessive consumption of biological resources. ⑤ To increase the

risk of biological invasion. The huge amount of ballast water generated by maritime transport of

fossil fuels and the climate change exacerbated by fossil fuel use significantly increase the risk

of alien species invasion.

Any mode of development prioritizing fossil energy is no longer sustainable. The fossil energy

era has already lasted over 200 years, during which the ongoing, large-scale exploitation and

utilization of fossil energy have led to resource shortages, climate change, environmental

pollution, habitat loss, excessive consumption of biological resources, biological invasion, and

many other problems, posing a grave threat to biodiversity. The current over-reliance on fossil

energy for production and consumption is the root cause of a lack of coordination between

energy and the environment, and of the lack of energy and environmental security. These

drawback already make such reliance unsustainable. In order to build an ecological civilization,

and a shared community for life on earth, only the trend towards an accelerated energy and

power revolution, and vigorous development of green energy, offers an escape route from the

reliance on fossil energy has created. That makes this trend irresistible.

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To achieve biodiversity protection will require holistic consideration of all

ecosystems, including the atmosphere, land, forest, ocean and freshwater

environments, along with all related sectors, including energy, the environment,

economy, and society. Meanwhile, it will also be necessary to replace traditional

concepts and models and embark on a path towards sustainable development.

Energy is the foundation of human survival and development. The current fossil

fuel-based energy system, although contributing to economic and social

development, is inflicting serious harm on environment sustainability.

Accelerating the energy and power revolution, and radically reforming this

unsustainable pattern of energy development and utilization, will therefore play a

critical role in the promotion of sustainable development and achievement of

biodiversity targets. GEI, a modern energy system based on clean energy and

electricity, and characterized by wide-range optimal allocation of resources,

offers a systematic solution for the energy and power revolution, and for the

sustainable development of the world. Looking ahead, GEI will advance the

large-scale global exploitation, utilization, and allocation of clean energy, setting

the world on a new path, and creating new momentum for biodiversity promotion

and the creation of a shared future for all life on Earth.

5.1 Accelerated Energy and Electric Power Revolution Necessary to

Achieve Biodiversity Goals

Energy is pivotal to sustainable development as a whole, not only via its connections with all

sustainable development goals and all aspects of biodiversity, but also through its direct

effects on all aspects of human productive activity and life. At the moment, energy activities are

being led by an unsustainable energy development pattern dominated by mass fossil fuel

development and utilization. This has resulted in a series of major problems, including climate

change, environmental pollution, resource shortages, and poverty and health issues, which are

hampering the world’s sustainable development, especially in ecological and environmental

governance respects. In order to promote biodiversity protection, construct a more harmonious

shared future for all life on Earth, and create a global village in which humanity and nature

coexist in harmony, the energy and electric power revolution must be accelerated without

delay.

5.1.1 Biodiversity Protection Creates an Urgent Need for Green, Low-Carbon

Energy Development

Energy development and biodiversity are inextricably linked. Through scientific and rational

energy production and consumption, our economic and social development needs can now be

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met, while strongly supporting climate and environmental protection and improvement, thereby

creating positive feedback effects. But global energy development remains dominated by a

“high pollution, high emission and high energy consumption” paradigm. In statistical terms,

fossil fuels, represented by coal, oil, and natural gas, account for approximately 80% of the

world’s primary energy consumption, and their large-scale development, processing,

conversion, transportation, and usage has generated huge amounts of waste gas, waste water,

and residues. Combustion and utilization of fossil fuels account for around 70% of the world’s

total greenhouse gas emissions and over 85% of the world’s total emissions of SO₂, NO_x, and

fine particles. This has led to serious problems such as aggravation of temperature increases,

air pollution, soil erosion, damage to vegetation, and resource shortages, posing severe

challenges to biodiversity.

In this context, the urgency of the realization of biodiversity goals and acceleration of the

energy and electric power revolution is redoubled. In practice, the existing irrational, overly

fossil fuel-reliant energy development model has been the main culprit underlying problems

such as climate change, environmental pollution, habitat destruction and degradation,

resource overexploitation, and invasive alien species. If this development model is not

reformed as soon as possible, it will continue to pose a significant barrier to biodiversity

protection and sustainable socioeconomic and ecological development. To deal with the crisis

threatening both human survival and development, and biodiversity, we must deal with its root

cause, which is energy. The energy and electric power revolution must therefore be

accelerated, completely transforming fossil fuel-based development concepts and paths, while

a new energy development model, oriented towards green, low-carbon, and sustainable

development and characterized by “zero pollution, zero carbon emissions, and high efficiency”

is established, providing a fundamental solution to the unsustainable energy development that

is restricting and damaging biodiversity to this day, and making the coordinated, sustainable

development of energy, electric power, and the ecological environment a possibility.

5.1.2 Directions of Energy and Electric Power Transition

Throughout history, energy has been a key force in driving human social development, always

adhering to both the laws of the era and its own inherent laws, as it has undergone

breakthroughs and evolution. As humanity’s development enters a new era, we are confronted

with the new task of speeding up green, low carbon and sustainable development.

Developments in the energy and electric power revolution will lead in three major directions:

cleanness, efficiency, and wider coverage.

1 Cleanness: decarbonization of the energy structure

As human society’s development needs change and science and technology progress, global

energy has shown a general trend towards lower carbon intensity. In the 19th century, firewood

was gradually replaced by coal, great changing human lifestyles and productivity. In the 20th

century, oil and natural gas transformed the world energy landscape. A new round of energy

revolution, represented by large-scale development and utilization of new energy, is currently

strongly underway, reducing the carbon content in its main energy sources and thus its impact

on the climate and environment. In general, the world’s energy system is undergoing an

upgrade towards lower carbon, increased quality, and greater sustainability. Since the

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beginning of the new century in particular, the prominence of problems such as resource

shortages, climate change, and environmental pollution due to long-term, large-scale

exploitation and utilization of fossil fuels, has been placing the natural environment and

biodiversity under increasingly severe threat. Countries worldwide are facing conflicting

pressures from multiple directions, in terms of their needs to meet energy demand, promote

carbon emission reduction, and protect the environment. Thus the accelerated development of

inexhaustible, environment-friendly clean energy with zero carbon emissions is in perfect

alignment with the trends of the era. In 2014, global energy consumption grew by 170 Mtce. Of

this, growth in clean energy consumption accounted for 53%, exceeding growth in fossil fuel

energy for the first time. At present, the world’s total installed solar and wind generation

capacity is in excess of 1.33 TW and 0.73 TW, representing 188-fold and 24-fold increases,

respectively, by comparison with the beginning of the century (Figure 5.1). As technology

progresses and clean energy’s costs decrease, its advantages in terms of cost efficiency and

competitiveness will become clearer, and the clean transition of energy and electric power will

accelerate further.

Figure 5.1 Increases in Global Installed Solar and Wind Power Generation Capacity

2 Efficiency: continuing energy utilization efficiency improvements

Increased energy development and utilization efficiency are inevitable outcomes of

technological innovation, a prerequisite for the development of an ecological civilization, and

also a necessity for accelerating energy conservation and emission reduction, and quality and

efficiency improvements. Historically, virtually every technological revolution — from steam

engines, internal combustion engines, and gas engines to electric generators and motors —

has opened up new era of energy development, delivering tremendous changes in energy

utilization, significant increases in utilization efficiency, and remarkable increases in social

productivity. However, the potential for improved utilization efficiency of fossil fuels is limited,

since that of internal combustion engines has stabilized at around 30%, while that of coal-fired

power generators has topped out at around 60%. The rapid development and widespread

application of clean energy technologies imply that large-scale clean energy development and

electricity conversion now represent the new main direction for energy efficiency improvements,

and since the efficiency of electric motors surpasses 90%, the final utilization efficiency of

electricity generated from clean energy is markedly higher than that of fossil fuels. Moreover,

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easy access to electricity will enable convenient interconversion with various other forms of

energy, expediting electrification and raising the electricity share in energy end-use. Electricity

thus represents an important approach to energy utilization efficiency improvement, and to

increasing the economic output of society as a whole (Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2 Technological Revolutions’ Contributions to Energy Utilization Efficiency

3 Wider-ranging: wider-ranging energy distribution

Geographical mismatches between energy distribution and economic development represent

a global problem. Fossil fuel resources are concentrated in only a few countries and regions,

while large-scale wind power and solar energy resources are mainly concentrated in extremely

cold or extremely hot regions, far from power demand centers. The technically exploitable

annual wind energy capacity of the Arctic region exceeds 80000 TWh, while in the equatorial

zone, annual technically exploitable solar energy capacity in excess of 50000 TWh exists.

These imbalances, together with economic globalization, taken together dictate the transition

of global energy distribution from a mode involving point-to-point supply to trans-national,

trans-regional, or even global distribution, a trend that is also the inevitable path towards

meeting requirements in terms of energy security and cost-effectiveness. Since the beginning

of the new century, global energy distribution has increasingly tended towards extensive,

large-scale, wide-ranging development, as new energy sources such as solar and wind energy

have swiftly grown. Between 2000 and 2014, OECD countries’ power consumption increased

by only 10%, while their trans-national power consumption increased by 32%. Looking ahead,

with large-scale development of clean energy in the Arctic and Equator regions, the scope and

scale of global energy distribution will be raised to a higher level, with a total of 12000 TWh of

energy expected to be exported from those regions to other continents by the second half of

this century.

5.1.3 Energy and Electric Power Transition Tasks

While the urgent need for biodiversity protection and sustainable environmental development

has resulted in a clear direction being set for energy transition, inertia and path-dependence

are ensuring an ongoing dominant role for fossil fuels in the current global energy system. To

change the current pattern of energy development, and speed up the transition and energy

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and electric power revolution, three major tasks must be implemented with great urgency.

1 Accelerate the scale and speed of clean energy development

There is a direct relationship between clean energy development, greenhouse gas and

pollutant emissions reduction, and the advancement of environmental protection and

restoration. As the climate change situation deteriorates and the need for sustainable

development grows more pressing, accelerating clean energy development, and markedly

increasing its scale and speed, is becoming increasingly urgent. Clean and renewable energy

accounts for only around 20% of the world’s total primary energy consumption, with installed

power generation capacity of around 2.8 TW, around 35% of the world’s total (Figure 5.3). In

terms of speed, between 2000 and 2020, the total global installed solar, wind, and hydropower

generation capacity increased approximately threefold, with an average annual growth rate of

over 6%, and the incremental renewable energy power generation installed capacity

accounted for over 60% of the total. Even this, however, is far from enough to meet the Paris

Agreement’s 2℃ or even 1.5℃ temperature goals. According to International Renewable

Energy Agency (IRENA) research, to address climate change effectively a more than fivefold

increase in the annual growth rate of the share of power generation from clean energy plus

direct utilization of renewable energy in final energy consumption, from the 0.25% projection in

the current scenario to over 1.5%, will be necessary. And this will involve annual investment of

800-1000 billion U.S. dollars over the coming three decades, compared to global investment in

renewable energy of merely 3 trillion U.S. dollars over the last decade, leaving the goal that all

increments in global energy consumption should be met by clean energy as yet to be achieved.

Clean development of energy still has, therefore, a long way to go and urgently requires

acceleration.

Figure 5.3 Current Proportions of Renewable Energy Consumption and

Generation Installed Capacity, Worldwide

2 Promoting electrification

Electricity is a clean, cost-effective, and efficient secondary energy source. All kinds of primary

energy can be converted into electricity, and most energy demands can be met from it.

Therefore, accelerating electrification remains a key measure for the promotion of energy

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transition and protection of the ecological environment. Research indicates that for each one

percentage point increase in the proportion of electricity in global energy consumption, global

energy consumption per unit of GDP is reduced by 3.7%, equivalent to a 720 Mtce decrease in

fossil fuel consumption, and saving 1.8 billion tons of CO₂emissions, based on current global

energy consumption. This speaks volumes as to the significance of electrification in saving

resources, improving energy efficiency, and protecting the ecological environment. During the

past five decades, the proportion of electricity in end-use energy has risen from 9% in 1971 to

20% today, successively surpassing coal, heating and natural gas (Figure 5.4). Looking ahead,

increasing numbers of countries and regions are set to include accelerated development of

electrification in their national energy transition strategies. For example, the EU’s Energy

Roadmap 2050 mandates a 40% reduction in total energy demand by 2050 compared with

2005, and a 50%-80% increase in electricity demand by 2050 compared with 2010, and

China’s Energy Production and Consumption Revolution Strategy (2016–2030), proposes a

substantial increase in the level of electrification. However, outside a few developed countries,

the overall global level of electrification remains low, with fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and

natural gas still in widespread use in final consumption. For the advancement of the

coordinated and sustainable development of energy and the environment, and for the

protection of biodiversity, the acceleration of the energy electrification process remains a

pressing need.

Figure 5.4 Electricity Share in Global End-Use Energy

3 Increase energy interconnectivity

Nations are not units sealed and isolated from the rest of the world like islands, but exist as a

community with the shared future. To achieve coordinated and sustainable development of

energy, the environment, economy, society, and other fields, mutual cooperation and support

must be strengthened to make full use of energy resources worldwide. Thus, speeding up

energy interconnection offers a crucial means of realizing sustainable energy development,

while also providing a focus for international cooperation. At present, only around 20% of the

world’s coal, 75% of oil, and 32% of natural gas are distributed between countries and

continents. However, in North America, Europe, and some other regions, regional

interconnected power grids, with a daily transmission capability of hundreds of gigawatt-hours

have been established, overcoming the limitations of time and space to enable energy to

benefit distant countries. Given the large-scale development of clean energy and increasing

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urgency of protecting natural resources, the ecological environment, and rare species, a clean

and efficient electricity system is sure to become the main medium for global energy

distribution, meeting the needs of sustainable development, while electricity trade becomes

the main form of global energy trade, making the task of establishing a widely interconnected

electricity network yet more pressing. The level of interconnectivity of today’s global power

systems, however, remains sorely inadequate, with trans-national and trans-regional power grid

interconnectivity lacking. Some countries even lack nationwide backbone power grid networks,

imposing a major barrier on their large-scale domestic development and efficient utilization of

clean energy, with negative effects in terms of climate, environmental governance, and natural

and ecological protection. For this reason, energy interconnection must be accelerated,

improving long-range energy distribution ability, and promoting worldwide access to clean

electricity.

In general, the acceleration of clean, efficient, and wide-ranging development, and realization

of green and low-carbon transition must represent the fundamental orientation and major tasks

of the energy and electric power revolution. But due to the current irrational pattern of energy

development, the economy and society have developed a heavy reliance on fossil fuels and

are experienced the “lock-in effect”, slowing their shift away from the present high-carbon

energy mix. Sole reliance on localized, fragmented, and unitary solutions would make

accelerating the energy and electric power revolution difficult. Active efforts to develop

innovative concepts and paths, and formulate global, cross-sectoral, integrated and

systematic plans based on a holistic approach and a grand vision, providing guidance for the

energy and electric power revolution and transition, should therefore be made.

5.2 GEI Construction Is Core to the Energy and Electric Power Revolution

To realize the vision of sustainable development, clean energy, including solar, wind and hydro

energy, must gradually replace fossil fuels as major energy sources. However, despite rich

resources, clean energy is distributed in a way that is imbalanced, random and uneven in

terms of time and space. For this reason, clean energy must be converted into electricity, and

can only be efficiently developed and utilized via reliance on the large-scale distribution made

possible by a interconnected grid networks. The construction of an electricity-centered, green,

and low-carbon energy development system is therefore future energy development’s

inevitable direction. Guided by sustainable development concepts, and established upon the

platform of large-scale interconnected power grids, GEI promises a clean, low-carbon, safe,

and efficient modern energy network, offering nations worldwide a systematic, comprehensive

solution for accelerating the energy and electric power revolution and advancing the

coordinated progress of climate governance, ecological and environmental protection, and

socio-economic development, and meanwhile, will play a significant role in the promotion of

biodiversity, the construction of a shared future for all life on earth, and the realization of

harmonious coexistence between humanity and nature.

5.2.1 The Essence of GEI

1 Fundamentals

GEI is a key platform for the global large-scale development, wide-range distribution, and

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efficient use of clean energy; a modern clean energy-driven energy system centered on

electricity consumption with extensive interconnection. In essence, GEI is “Smart Grids + UHV

Grids + Clean Energy”; together these three components constitute GEI’s overall framework

(Figure 5.5).

Figure 5.5 GEI’s Structure

Smart Grids: the foundation. An advanced energy system, GEI will incorporate more varied

kinds of electrical equipment, integrating a higher proportion of clean energy, and realizing

wider power grid interconnectivity. This will impose higher requirements for the system in terms

of operational safety, flexibility and power supply quality, in turn creating a requirement for

strong support from its smart grid systems. Smart grids are transmission and distribution

systems combining traditional electric power technologies with cutting-edge sensing and

control technologies, information and communications technologies, and efficient energy

utilization technologies. Their more advanced and comprehensive properties increase their

adaptability to grid integration and to the consumption of varied types of centralized and

distributed clean energy. In this way, they are capable of satisfying the needs of electrical

equipment for access, interaction, and other services, of promoting coordinated optimization,

of performing multi-energy complementation, and intelligent energy interaction in terms of grid,

loading and storage, of ensuring the flexible and efficient operation of electric power systems,

and of meeting users’ ever-increasing and varied energy demands, permitting safe, reliable,

cost-effective and efficient energy interconnectivity (Figure 5.6).

UHV Grids are key. Large-scale development, utilization and efficient distribution of global

clean energy resources must rely on local conversion of clean energy into electric power and

subsequent transmission of that electricity via mega power grids. The UHV grids will mainly

consist of 1000 kV AC and ±800 kV and ±1100 kV DC transmission systems, whose significant

advantages, when compared with EHV transmission, include long transmission range, high

capacity, high efficiency, low line loss, reduced land usage, and improved safety (Figure 5.7).

UHV AC’s strengths include good power transmission and grid connectivity functionality, while

UHV DC is mainly used for large-scale “point-to-point” power delivery. With their different

characteristics and functions, the two grid types complement one another, and require

coordinated balanced development. As GEI’s backbone, UHV grids will form a “network of

power highways” covering clean energy facilitiess and consumption centers worldwide, full

leveraging the role of power grids as distribution platforms to transmit tens of gigawatt-hours of

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power across thousands of kilometers. Thus, UHV grids occupy a pivotal position in advancing

the development of clean energy, and accelerating the world’s energy transition.

Figure 5.6 Diagram of the Smart Grid System

Figure 5.7 Comparison of UHV and EHV AC/DC Transmission Technologies

Clean Energy is the foundation. The ultimate goal of energy transition is the development of

clean energy, including solar, wind, hydro, marine and biomass energy, into the dominant

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energy source used in human production and life, and this will also provide the foundation for

the construction of GEI, and the realization of green, low-carbon and sustainable development.

Compared with fossil fuels whose supply is limited, global clean energy resources are

abundant. According to GEIDCO estimates, global solar, wind and hydropower theoretical

reserves total around 150 million TWh every year, with corresponding installed power

generation capacity in excess of 130000 TW. Global clean energy resource distribution and

reserves is shown in Figure 5.8. Calculated based on current growth in global energy demand

and per capita energy consumption, it would take only around 0.05% of the world’s total clean

energy supplies to fulfill humanity’s future energy demands. The acceleration of clean energy

development, and a scientific and rational method of development will be of vital importance.

GEI will promote clean energy development in accordance with local conditions, and

accelerate the large-scale development, utilization and long-range distribution of various kinds

of centralized and distributed clean energy, providing green momentum for the world’s

sustainable development.

Figure 5.8 Global Clean Energy Resource Distribution and Reserves

2 Core features

GEI will represent a revolutionary pioneering platform

for new energy production, consumption and allocation,

with five core features: clean and low-carbon, robust

grid network, wide-interconnection, highly intelligent,

and open and interactive (Figure 5.9).

(1) Clean and low-carbon

Clean, low-carbon operation is GEI’s core tenet.

The core of sustainable development is clean

development, and accelerating the energy and

electric power revolution is key to this. A important

Figure 5.9 Five Core Features of GEI

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medium of energy transition promotion, GEI adheres to clean and low-carbon development

concepts at every energy related stage from production to distribution and consumption.

Through large-scale development of centralized and distributed clean energy of various kinds,

local conversion of clean energy into electricity, and transmission of this electricity through

major grids, GEI will directly provide electricity to thousands upon thousands of households

worldwide, thereby making clean, low-carbon and efficient energy development, transmission

and use a reality.

(2) Robust network

A robust network is a fundamental prerequisite for GEI. For large-scale energy transmission

and long-range energy interconnection, the foundation a strong grid network represents for the

global resource distribution platform build upon it constitutes not only a significant prerequisite,

but also is also fundamental to its stability. GEI will strive to construct a scientifically-planned,

secure and reliable backbone grid network, with a sound structure enabling large-scale access

to and flexible consumption of wind, solar and other distributed power sources, with strong

resource allocation ability and very secure operation.

(3) Widely interconnected

Being widely interconnected is the basic form of GEI. For realizing the wide-ranging allocation

of global energy resources and relevant public service resources, it is necessary to establish a

widely-interconnected energy network. GEI can promote the coordinated development and

close connection of intercontinental backbone grids, trans-national interconnected grids within

a continent, national grids, regional grids, distribution grids and microgrids, thereby

establishing an extensive allocation system for electric power resources and realizing the free

trade and circulation of clean energy worldwide.

(4) Advanced intelligence

High intelligence will be a critical factor for GEI. Acheiving flexible access to various power

sources and load centers while ensuring safe energy transmission will necessitate fully

leveraging the role of the information network in providing intelligent support. Through the

extensive application of advanced technologies such as big data, IoT, cloud computing,

mobile communications, artificial intelligence, blockchain and virtual reality, GEI will provide

support for the free flow of various elements across its entire network, in combination with

real-time interaction of information, permitting highly-intelligent, automated power generation,

transmission, transformation, distribution, consumption and scheduling, and automatically

prediction and identification of most malfunctions and risks, to achieve safe and efficient

worldwide energy distribution, ushering human society into a new era that will be both more

convenient, and smarter.

(5) Open and interactive

Openness and interactivity will be important properties for GEI. As an energy community, GEI’s

construction, operation and use will involve various countries and sectors. All stakeholders

should adhere to a spirit of openness, inclusiveness, equity, justice, unity and cooperation in

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order to better advance the development of clean energy, the wide-ranging interconnection of

power grids and the optimal distribution of resources, and to realize co-construction, sharing,

mutual benefit and win-win results. As an open energy network market, GEI will strive to

promote two-way circulation of energy between users and suppliers, and extensive information

interaction between users and different types of electrical equipment, realizing optimal

distribution and maximization of resource value via establishing an open, unified, competitive,

and orderly organizational operation system.

5.2.2 GEI Promotes the Energy and Electric Power Revolution

Developing GEI represents a sweeping, profound revolution in energy and electric power.

Encompassing all segments and fields of energy production, allocation and consumption, GEI

strives to comprehensively improve the quality, speed and scale of the clean transition and the

development of electrification. It is a radical change to the current system and a model of

energy and electric power development, and it will fundamentally transform the productivity

and relations of energy production. Thus, it aims to play an important role in addressing climate

change, improving the natural environment and promoting biodiversity.

1 Implementation path of GEI to promote the revolution of energy and electric power

Sticking to the energy and electric power transition and taking accelerating “Two

Replacements, One Increase, One Restore and One Conversion”（Figure 5.10） as the focus,

GEI works to comprehensively advance the clean energy transition, establish a green,

low-carbon, safe and efficient system for energy and electric power, and completely eliminate

the heavy reliance on fossil fuels. Furthermore, it strives to eliminate the emissions of CO₂and

other various pollutants at the source, sharply reducing the impact of energy development and

utilization on the natural environment, greatly promoting the development of ecological

civilization and realizing the harmonious coexistence of humanity and nature.

Figure 5.10 Two Replacements, One Increase, One Restore and One Conversion

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Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

(1) Two Replacements

The “two replacements,” namely clean replacement and electricity replacement, refers to

carrying out clean replacement on the energy production side (replacing fossil fuels with clean

energy such as solar, wind and hydropower) and conducting electricity replacement on the

energy consumption side (replacing coal, oil, natural gas and firewood with electricity

generated from clean energy). Promoting the large-scale development of clean energy and the

extensive use of electricity requires two-pronged action on both energy production and energy

consumption. Efforts must be made to significantly mitigate the issues caused by the

development and utilization of fossil fuels. Such issues include greenhouse gas emissions,

ecological pollution, environmental pollution and forest loss due to the destruction of vegetation.

Thus, the formation of an industrial system based on clean energy must be accelerated, and

the coordinated, sustainable development of the economy, society and environment must be

realized.

(2) One Increase

“One increase” refers to raising the level of electrification of society at large to promote energy

conservation and to reduce energy intensity. As a quality, efficient and convenient form of

energy with high final utilization efficiency, electricity can create economic value 17.3 times and

3.2 times that of coal and oil, respectively. When the proportion of electricity in final energy rises

by one percentage point, energy intensity declines by 3.7%. These Figures indicate that the

most effective approach for improving energy utilization efficiency is to advance electrification.

As the pace of the electrification process picks up, this efficiency will rise remarkably, and

energy consumption per unit of GDP will significantly decline, thereby boosting high-quality

economic development.

(3) One Restore

“One restoration” refers to reverting fossil fuels to their original basic role as raw industrial

materials — as opposed to fuels — to create greater value for economic and social

development. Studies show that oil is 1.6 times more economically valuable when used as a

raw material than when used as a fuel. The restoration of fossil fuels is directly related to the

scale and speed of clean energy development. According to the law of value, a more scientific,

intensive, recycling-oriented and efficient use of fossil fuels will contribute to the formation of a

more eco-friendly and harmonious pattern of economic development, thereby maximizing the

value of resources and offering an effective solution to mitigate resource shortages.

(4) One Conversion

“One conversion” refers to the conversion of water, CO₂and other substances into fuels and

raw materials such as hydrogen, methane and methanol through clean energy power

generation, thus removing the obstacles caused by production-related resource shortages at a

deeper and broader level. This will also generate more room for economic growth and will

satisfy humanity’s demands for sustainable development. Over the past years, electrochemical

technologies such as the electrolysis of water for hydrogen and ammonia production have

developed via innovation and are now widely applied. This fully demonstrates that electricity

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will enable the synthesis of various kinds of organic matter as well as the production of raw

materials through more methods, and it shows how power from clean energy will substitute for

the traditional use of fossil fuels in the future.

2 GEI promotes the realization of “three transformations”

Developing GEI and advancing the “Two Replacements, One Increase, One Restore and One

Conversion” will accelerate the energy and electric power revolution, fundamentally change

the current model and landscape for energy development, establish a new system for energy

production, allocation and consumption, and accomplish the “three transformations” in the field

of energy and electric power.

(1) Realize the transformation of the focus of energy production from fossil fuels to clean

energy

With the concept of clean development as a guide and large-scale, interconnected power

grids as a platform, efforts must be made to promote the large-scale development, allocation

and consumption of global clean energy, as well as to phase out fossil fuels while supplying

zero-carbon energy at a faster pace. Efforts are also needed to radically change the reliance

on fossil fuels–based concepts and paths for development, to establish a new energy system

dominated by clean energy and to decouple energy and electric power development, carbon

and socio-economic development and carbon emissions. When it comes to actual

implementation, centralized solar stations, wind farms and hydropower stations can be

planned and constructed in areas with quality resources, favorable site conditions and little

negative impact on the natural environment. In addition, distributed solar power stations, wind

farms and small hydropower stations can be developed at electricity consumption centers and

remote areas based on local conditions. Thus, the advantages of quality resources can be

leveraged to create economies of scale, to minimize development costs, to raise project

profitability and to accelerate the development of global clean energy. Under the GEI scenario,

by 2050, the world’s total installed capacity of solar power, wind power and hydropower

generation will reach 32.9 TW, which is 16.5 times that of 2016. The world’s clean energy

consumption will account for 95% of primary energy consumption, and its clean energy power

generation capacity will reach 79000 TWh, accounting for 95% of the total. With the optimal

allocation and flexible scheduling of GEI, various kinds of energy sources in nature, including

solar, river power, wind and geothermal can be fully tapped and efficiently used in an

environmentally friendly way. Therefore, human society can radically eliminate fossil fuels and

meet its needs for energy and electric power in a clean and green way. Likewise, natural

ecologies and biodiversity will be effectively protected, and the coordinated and sustainable

development of energy and the environment can be realized.

(2) Realize the transformation of focus of energy allocation from local balance to global

interconnection

Efforts will be made to change the traditional development landscape characterized by the

local consumption of energy and local power balance. Also, UHV grids must be leveraged to

realize the global interconnection of electricity and the wide-ranging allocation of energy, as

well as to solve the distributional imbalance between clean energy resources and load centers.

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In addition, coordinated efforts should be made to unleash the key role of large power grids in

“energy storage across time and space” to capitalize on the advantages that stem from

differences in time zones, seasons, resources and prices. Likewise, it is necessary to

accelerate the development and efficient utilization of clean energy at scale and to promote

global clean development and energy transition. Complementarity across time, space and

different energy sources is the most impressive advantage of depending on GEI to broadly

allocate clean energy. Regarding the northern and southern hemispheres, due to seasonal

differences, they experience remarkable differences in climate and resource characteristics,

thus resulting in significant seasonal load complementarity. Trans-national and trans-continental

power grid interconnection can thus realize the effective complementarity between different

regions and different kinds of energy sources. They can also reduce fluctuations in clean

energy output, improve overall energy utilization efficiency and promote the overall

acceleration of clean development. Regarding the eastern and western hemispheres, due to

time differences, there are differences in peak electricity consumption and load distributions.

Trans-national and trans-continental power grid interconnections can therefore adjust peak and

off-peak seasons across different time zones, as well as the extensive optimal allocation of

global clean energy. They can increase the utilization ratio of the power generation equipment

of countries in different continents, and they can reduce the reserve capacity of power systems.

In addition, they can provide a vast consumption market for clean energy, accelerate the scale

and efficient development of clean energy, and help human society identify new resource

development and utilization paths characterized by sustainable production and consumption.

Under the GEI scenario, by 2050, the world’s trans-regional and trans-continental power flow

will exceed 660 GW, and the total length of the GEI backbone grid will exceed 180000

kilometers, covering more than 100 countries that are home to 80% of the world’s total

population and over 90% of the world’s economic aggregate. At this point, a real global

thoroughfare for energy will have been formed.

(3) Realize the transformation of the focus of energy consumption from coal, oil and natural gas

to electricity

Efforts will be made to promote the extensive consumption of clean electricity in industrial,

commercial, transport, residential and other sectors to sharply reduce the proportion of coal, oil

and natural gas in final consumption. In addition, smart grids will be leveraged to satisfy the

needs of various types of electric equipment for flexible access services and the needs of

users for diverse services, as well as to realize the intelligent interaction and efficient synergy of

energy, grids, loads and storage. Smart grids will also secure the safe and cost-effective

operation of such energy networks. Moreover, efforts must be increased to promote electricity

as a replacement, thus forming a consumption landscape dominated by electricity. This will be

the biggest contribution and benefit of GEI’s endeavor to advance the global energy

consumption revolution. Specifically, coal will be replaced by electricity to sharply reduce the

direct combustion and usage of coal in final consumption and to dramatically decrease carbon

emissions and environmental pollution. Oil will be replaced by electricity to reduce the usage of

oil in transport, industrial manufacturing, agricultural production and other sectors to promote

energy conservation and emissions reduction, as well as to decrease the reliance on oil.

Natural gas will be replaced by electricity to promote new energy utilization models that are

efficient, pollution-free and low-cost, such as heat pumps, electric boilers and electric cooking

wares in commercial, industrial, residential and other sectors. This will mitigate issues such as

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the high pollution, high emissions and high energy consumption costs caused by the final

consumption of natural gas. Also, firewood will be replaced by electricity to offer developing

countries — especially rural areas — modern electricity services, thereby eliminating the

problem in which nearly three billion people in the world cannot afford electricity and have to

rely on firewood and primary biomass energy for cooking, heating and lighting. This will reduce

the air pollution and environmental degradation caused by inefficient energy utilization, and it

will promote ecological and biodiversity protection. Under the GEI scenario, by 2050, the

proportion of electricity in final energy consumption worldwide will reach 63%, indicating the

full formation of an energy consumption landscape centered on electricity.

5.2.3 Development Roadmap for GEI

Implementing GEI requires a comprehensive and systematic roadmap. Based on a green,

low-carbon and sustainable development concept, as well as a holistic analysis of major

development factors such as energy, electricity, climate, environment and economy, GEIDCO

conducted in-depth research into economic and social development in countries around the

world. It researched resource endowments, energy supply and energy demand, among other

aspects, and it proposed a development roadmap for global energy production, consumption

and interconnection.

1 Energy production

From 2000 to 2018, the world’s total energy production grew from 14.3 Gtce to 20.4 Gtce,

representing an average annual growth rate of 2%. Notably, the proportion of fossil fuels

stabilized at more than 80%. The world’s total installed capacity of power generation doubled

from 3.5 TW in 2000 to about 7 TW in 2020. As of 2020, the installed capacity of clean energy

power generation accounted for about 40% of the total installed capacity. Notably, the installed

capacity of wind power and solar power generation accounted for more than 80% of the world’s

newly-added installed capacity in 2020. As shown, there has been an incredibly pronounced

trend toward clean energy playing the leading role in energy production. Based on current

global energy production trends, and considering the needs of addressing climate change,

protecting the natural environment and promoting economic and social development, a

development roadmap for global energy production based on GEI has been put forth to meet

the preliminary goal of limiting any increase to global temperatures by 1.5℃. The global

primary energy consumption is shown in Figure 5.11. The global mix of power generation

capacity is shown in Figure 5.12.

The Stage of Clean Replacement: Based on the calorific value calculation for power generation,

the world’s total primary energy consumption demand will reach 21.9 Gtce (about 26.5 Gtce by

coal consumption method) by 2035. The world’s total consumption of fossil fuels will peak

around 2025 and then start to decline. The world’s total consumption of clean energy will

surpass that of fossil fuels, which means that clean energy will dominate energy production

and supply at a proportion of about 37% (about 48% by coal consumption method). In addition,

the world’s total installed capacity of power generation will reach approximately 19.5 TW, and

the world’s total installed capacity of clean energy power generation will reach 15.8 TW,

accounting for 81% of the total — of which solar, wind and hydro will account for 38%, 26% and

10%, respectively.

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The Stage of Clean Energy Dominance: Based on the calorific value calculation for power

generation, the world’s total primary energy consumption demand will reach 19.4 Gtce (about

28.5 Gtce by coal consumption method) by 2050. Clean energy will account for 75% (about

83% by coal consumption method ) of the total primary energy consumption, nearly triple the

value of 2020. In addition, the world’s total installed capacity of power generation will reach

approximately 37.0 TW, and the world’s total installed capacity of clean energy power

generation will reach 35.2 TW, accounting for 95% of the total — of which solar, wind and

hydropower will account for 52%, 28% and 8%, respectively.

Figure 5.11 The Development of Global Primary Energy Consumption

Figure 5.12 The Development of the Global Mix of Installed Power Generation Capacity

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2 Energy consumption

From 2000 to 2018, the world’s total end-use energy consumption rose from 10.1 Gtce to 14.2

Gtce, representing an average annual growth rate of 1.9%. Notably, the proportion of fossil

fuels declined from 68% to about 65%, and the proportion of electricity grew to about 20%,

representing an increase of over ten percentage points compared with 1970. The global

energy consumption is shown in Figure 5.13. The forecast of the proportion of global electricity

demand in the final energy consumption is shown in Figure 5.14. It is foreseeable that as the

world’s level of electrification continues to improve, electricity will assume a greater share of

final energy consumption and will eventually become the main form of energy consumption.

Considering current global energy consumption, the trend for energy electrification, industrial

structure reform, energy conservation, emissions reduction and technological progress, among

other factors, a development outlook for global energy consumption based on GEI has been

put forward.

The Stage of Electricity Replacement: By 2035, the world’s total final energy consumption will

peak at 16.5 Gtce and then start to decline year by year. Coal consumption, oil consumption

and natural gas consumption will peak or plateau around 2021, 2025 and 2035, respectively.

The proportion of final fossil fuel consumption will reach approximately 55%. The world’s total

electricity demand will reach 50000 TWh at an average annual growth rate of 3.9% from 2020 to

2035, and the proportion of electricity in final energy consumption will exceed 33%.

The Stage of Electricity Dominance: By 2050, the world’s total final energy consumption will

drop to 14.9 Gtce, among which the proportion of fossil fuels will decline to 15%. The world’s

total electricity demand will continue to rise and reach more than 83000 TWh at an average

annual growth rate of 3.4% from 2036 to 2050, and the proportion of electricity in final energy

consumption will reach approximately 63%.

Figure 5.13 The Development of Global Energy Consumption

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Figure 5.14 Forecast of the Proportion of Global Electricity Demand in Final Energy Consumption

3 Energy allocation

Interconnection is an important form of the extensive allocation of energy, and it is a bridge

between energy production and consumption. Currently, the development of domestic,

trans-national and trans-continental energy interconnection among countries around the world

is sluggish and does not meet the needs of both large-scale development and the outgoing

transmission of global clean energy. Based on the current state of global energy

interconnection and the wide-ranging trend of energy development — and considering

resource endowments, demand distribution, energy development, socio-economic development

and other factors — a development outlook for global energy interconnection is proposed in

three subsequent stages: domestic interconnection, intracontinental interconnection and

global interconnection.

The Stage of Domestic Interconnection: By 2025, the construction of clean energy bases,

domestic grid interconnection and smart grids in countries around the world will accelerate,

giving shape to the overall landscape. Asian and South American trans-national grid

interconnection will present major breakthroughs. European and North American

intracontinental interconnection will be further enhanced, and the abilities of countries around

the world to guarantee their energy supplies will be greatly improved.

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The Stage of Intracontinental Interconnection: By 2035, intracontinental interconnection among

all continents, as well as Asia–Europe–Africa trans-continental interconnection, will be realized.

Trans-regional and trans-continental power flow will reach 330 GW. The complementarity

between different countries, regions, periods and types of energy sources will be achieved,

and energy systems will be more efficient and cost-effective.

The Stage of Global Interconnection: By 2050, the GEI backbone grid network consisting of

“nine horizontal lines and nine vertical lines” will take shape. In addition, an optimal EHV/UHV

smart grids–backed allocation network for global clean energy that links clean energy bases

with major electricity consumption centers in all continents will be formed. With a total

trans-regional and trans-continental power flow of more than 660 GW, energy interconnection

and sharing between countries around the world will be achieved, and strong momentum will

be injected into the “sustainable energy for all” initiative, as well as sustainable economic,

social and environmental development.

As shown in Figure 5.15, the “nine horizontal lines and nine vertical lines” of the GEI backbone

grid network are detailed as follows.

Figure 5.15 GEI Backbone Grid Network

The First Horizontal Line: Spanning 19 time zones with a total length of 12000 km, the Arctic

energy interconnection channel would run from Norway in northern Europe to the United States

via Russia and the Bering Strait, and it would enable the interconnection of 80% of power

systems in the Northern Hemisphere.

The Second Horizontal Line: With a total length of 10000 km, the Eurasian north horizontal

channel would connect China, Kazakhstan (in Central Asia), Germany and France (in Europe)

and other countries, bringing clean energy in Central Asia to Europe and China through UHV

technology.

The Third Horizontal Line: With a total length of 9000 km, the Eurasian south horizontal channel

would connect Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia and southern Europe, and it would

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transmit solar power from West Asia to load centers in Europe and South Asia. Additionally, it

would transmit hydro energy from Southeast Asia and China to South Asia.

The Fourth Horizontal Line: With a total length of 9500 km, the Africa–Asia north horizontal

channel would connect solar power bases in South Asia and West Asia with northern Africa,

and it would deliver solar power from West Asia to northern Africa.

The Fifth Horizontal Line: With a total length of 6000 km, the Africa–Asia south horizontal

channel would connect hydropower bases along the Congo River and the Nile River with solar

power bases in West Asia, and it would achieve mutual supply and complementarity between

hydropower sources in Africa and solar power sources in West Asia.

The Sixth Horizontal Line: With a total length of 4500 km, the North American north horizontal

channel would connect power grids in eastern and western Canada, enhance power exchange

capacity between the two regions, receive wind power from the Arctic and transmit electricity to

load centers in eastern Canada.

The Seventh Horizontal Line: With a total length of 5000 km, the North American south

horizontal channel would connect solar power in the western United States with the wind power

of the central United States and the hydropower of the Mississippi River, and it would transmit

electricity to New York and Washington DC in the east, as well as to load centers in the west.

The Eighth Horizontal Line: With a total length of 3500 km, the South American north horizontal

channel would connect Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela and other countries in the northern part of

South America, and it would increase regional power exchange capacity.

The Ninth Horizontal Line: With a total length of 3000 km, the South American south horizontal

channel would connect hydropower sources in the Amazon River Basin with solar power in

Chile, and it would transmit electricity to load centers in southeastern Brazil.

The First Vertical Line: With a total length of 15000 km, the Europe–Africa west vertical channel

would run from Iceland to southern Africa through the UK, France, Spain, Morocco and western

Africa, and it would run north to the Western Hemisphere through Greenland. It would transmit

wind power from Greenland and the North Sea to the European continent, and it would transmit

hydropower from the Congo River to northern and southern Africa.

The Second Vertical Line: With a total length of 4500 km, the Europe–Africa middle vertical

channel would connect wind power bases in the Arctic, hydropower bases in northern Europe

and solar power bases in northern Africa, and it would run through the European continent via

Germany, France, Austria, Italy and other countries.

The Third Vertical Line: With a total length of 14000 km, the Europe–Africa east vertical channel

would run from the Barents coast to southern Africa through Russia, the Baltic Sea, Ukraine,

Egypt and eastern Africa, and it would transmit wind power from the Arctic and the Baltic Sea

to Europe, as well as hydropower from the Nile River to northern and southern Africa.

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The Fourth Vertical Line: With a total length of 5500 km, the Asian west vertical channel would

connect solar power bases in Central Asia and West Asia with Siberian hydropower bases in

Russia. It would enable multi-energy integration via the Central Asian synchronous power grid,

and it would extend northward to the wind power bases of the Kara Sea.

The Fifth Vertical Line: With a total length of 6500 km, the Asian middle vertical channel would

connect hydropower bases in Russia with wind and solar power bases in northwest China, as

well as with hydropower bases in southwest China, and it would bring electricity to load centers

in South Asia through UHV DC transmission.

The Sixth Vertical Line: With a total length of 19000 km, the Asian east vertical channel would

connect Russia, China, Northeast Asia and Southeast Asia, and it would transmit clean power

from the Russian Far East, China and Southeast Asia to load centers.

The Seventh Vertical Line: With a total length of 15000 km, the American west vertical channel

would receive wind power from the Arctic, form a UHV AC synchronous power grid around

Canada, the west coast of the United States and Mexico, and interconnect with the grid in the

northern part of South America via Central America through UHV DC transmission.

The Eighth Vertical Line: With a total length of 4000 km, the Central American middle vertical

channel would start from Manitoba in Canada in the north, run through the central United States

to Texas and extend to Mexico City in the south, thus achieving the complementary support of

multiple energy sources between the north and the south.

The Ninth Vertical Channel: With a total length of 16000 km, the American east vertical channel

would start from Quebec in Canada and run through the east coast of the United States to

Florida. It would receive hydropower from northern Canada, solar power from the western

United States and wind power from the central United States, thereby facilitating the extensive

allocation of clean energy.

5.3 Building GEI Offers a Systematic Solution for Biodiversity Protection

Climate change, environmental pollution, habitat loss, degradation, resource depletion and

invasive alien species pose major threats to biodiversity, and all of these are closely related to

unsustainable patterns of energy development. For the purpose of developing the GEI, efforts

should be made to implement the “two replacements, one increase, one restoration and one

conversion.” Specifically, all countries should accelerate clean energy development and

electrification. They should shift the focus of their energy systems from fossil fuels to clean

energy, and they should reduce the impact of unreasonable energy development on the natural

environment and ecological species. Likewise, they should establish a new model for the

coordinated and sustainable development of energy and the environment. In this way,

comprehensive benefits will be secured across 16 dimensions and five major aspects, thus

improving the global ecological environment: ① controlling global temperature rise,

② alleviating ocean acidification, ③ reducing glacier retreat, ④ addressing extreme climate

disasters, ⑤ reducing air pollution, ⑥ reducing fresh water pollution, ⑦ reducing solid

waste pollution, ⑧ reducing marine ecosystem damage, ⑨ reducing deforestation,

⑩ reducing habitat loss, , promoting the replacement of firewood with electricity,

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- promoting the popularization and application of food preservation equipment, . promoting

the popularization and application of the electrosynthesis of fuels and raw materials,

/ combating desertification,  promoting marine ecological restoration and 1 reducing

biological invasion. Efforts in these 16 dimensions will greatly contribute to the global response

to climate change. They will bring environmental pollution under control, reduce habitat loss,

promote the sustainable use of biological resources and advance the restoration of natural

environments. They will reduce and even eliminate the impact of the five major factors that

threaten biodiversity, thus facilitating biodiversity conservation, as shown in Figure 5.16.

This section will use data and facts to elaborate on the role and contribution of GEI in improving

natural environments around the world from these 16 dimensions. It will also analyze the

significance and value of GEI in promoting biodiversity conservation.

Figure 5.16 A Correlation Model of GEI and Biodiversity Protection

5.3.1 Radically Addressing Climate Change

Climate change is a daunting challenge facing the world. In recent years, continued

temperature increases have led to frequent, extreme climate disasters, ocean acidification and

intensified glacier retreat, seriously threatening biodiversity. Through GEI development, a green

energy system that is worldwide, efficient, clean, low-carbon and intelligent has come into

being to address climate change and biodiversity crises.

1 Responding to climate change

Through large-scale clean replacement and electricity replacement, GEI strengthens grid

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interconnection, accelerates the decarbonization of the energy system and addresses climate

change, thereby alleviating biodiversity issues caused by climate change. Through detailed

modeling calculations, GEI provides a high efficiency, low cost and high–comprehensive value

solution for achieving the 1.5℃ temperature rise control target of the Paris Agreement.

Regarding the speed of emissions reduction, carbon emissions from energy usage will peak by

2025 and hit net zero by 2050. Cumulative carbon emissions from 2020 to 2100 will come to

about 380 billion tons, achieving the target of keeping global temperatures from rising less than

1.5℃. From 2020 to 2050, the GEI scenario will help reduce cumulative emissions of more than

970 billion tons, compared to the current business as usual model. About 50% of this reduction

will result form clean replacement, 30% from electricity replacement, and 10% from energy

efficiency enhancements. The GEI path for emissions reduction is shown in Figure 5.17.

Figure 5.17 The GEI Path for Emissions Reduction

Regarding the emissions reduction economy, GEI will promote energy transition in the most

economical way, as it can reduce energy investments and slash the cost of emissions

reduction. It is estimated that from 2016 to 2050, cumulative investments in energy systems will

total USD 97 trillion, accounting for no more than 2% of GDP. Compared with other emissions

reduction schemes, these investments are much lower, as are their costs, which are shown in

Figure 5.18.

Regarding the benefits of emissions reduction, GEI development will deliver nine US dollars in

social benefits for every dollar invested in energy systems. By 2050, climate-related losses will

be cut by USD 20 trillion. By the end of the century, potential climate-related losses equivalent

to 3% of global GDP can be avoided every year, as is shown in Figure 5.19.

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Figure 5.18 An Investment Comparison of GEI and Other Schemes

Figure 5.19 The Benefits of GEI-Based Emissions Reduction

2 Alleviating Biodiversity Issues Caused by Climate Change

GEI development will reduce greenhouse gas emissions and alleviate climate change, thereby

reducing the impact of rising temperatures, ocean acidification, glacier retreat and extreme

climate disasters on biodiversity.

Keeping Global Temperatures From Rising: GEI will reduce the use of fossil fuels and relevant

carbon emissions in the most efficient way. By 2050, thermal power generation will decrease to

4000 TWh, accounting for 6.8% of all power generation. This will basically achieve carbon

neutrality and keep temperatures from rising past 1.5℃. These efforts will protect terrestrial and

marine biological habitats from the effects of increasing temperatures to the greatest extent

while also maintaining the current distribution of species on earth.

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Alleviating Ocean Acidification: GEI will accelerate the decarbonization of energy systems,

sharply reducing the amount of CO₂in the air and alleviating ocean acidification. For example,

the carbon emissions from ships’ auxiliary engines when at berth in ports account for 70% of

total port emissions. Through the large-scale development of shore power, carbon emissions

from vessels at berth can be reduced by 98%. After achieving carbon neutrality by 2050, the

concentration of CO₂in the air will be greatly reduced, preventing the pH of seawater from

further decline. Seawater, which has become 30% more acidic, will be gradually restored to

chemical equilibrium via self-regulation, eliminating the great threats faced by marine life and

ecosystems like coral reefs.

Reducing Glacier Retreat: The impact of glacier retreat on biodiversity is mainly reflected in the

degradation of polar ecosystems and the damage to coastal terrestrial ecosystems caused by

rising sea levels. GEI development will play an active role in reducing glacier retreat. As a result,

polar ecosystems in the Antarctic, Arctic and Himalayan glaciers will be protected from more

serious damage. By keeping temperatures from rising another 1.5℃, rising sea levels will be

curbed, thus minimizing the impact on coastal ecosystems.

Reducing Extreme Climate Disasters: The frequency of extreme weather like hurricanes,

wildfires, floods, extremely high temperatures and heat waves has increased sharply

worldwide. Statistics from the International Disaster Database show that the frequency of

weather and climate disasters has nearly quadrupled since 1980. By stabilizing and gradually

reducing the frequency and probability of extreme climate disasters, GEI can reduce the

impact of climate change on agriculture, biological habitats and small islands.

5.3.2 Fully Controlling Environmental Pollution

1 Reducing Air Pollution

For a long time, mankind’s overreliance on and consumption of fossil fuels has caused the

excessive emissions of pollutants such as SO₂, NO_xand fine particles into the atmosphere. This

has led to air pollution like acid rain, toxic haze and smog, as well as the endangerment of

animals and plants. Hence, reducing fossil fuels consumption and pollutant emissions is

fundamental to alleviating air pollution.

Reducing Air Pollution. GEI will completely alter the way people consume energy. Clean energy

like solar, wind and hydro will become the dominant energy sources. People will eliminate their

the dependence on fossil fuels, which will significantly reduce air pollution and effectively

alleviate the impact of air pollution on biodiversity. It is estimated that by developing GEI, 640

million tons of SO₂, 100 million tons of NO_xand 146 million tons of inhalable particles will be

reduced annually by 2050. This means that the emissions of these air pollutants will be reduced

by more than 70% globally compared to current levels, thereby fundamentally improving air

quality and the ecological environment.

Improving Soil Quality and Water Acidification: A large amount of acid gas like SO₂and NO_x

from human activities penetrates into the earth’s surface via rainfall, snowfall or direct exposure,

resulting in the acidification of soil and water. GEI will substantially reduce the emissions of

these acid gas pollutants, thus mitigating soil acid deposition and surface water acidification,

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while also creating an enabling environment for ecosystems like forests, grasslands, rivers and

lakes. As such, GEI will protect biodiversity worldwide.

Column 5-1

China Energy Interconnection Helps to

Control Air Pollution

The China Energy Interconnection, built with the UHV grid as its backbone, has played a

vital role in improving China’s atmospheric environment. Approximately 70% of China’s

coal-fired power plants are located in densely populated areas in the central and eastern

parts of the country. Along the Yangtze River, power plants have been built every 30 km,

causing huge amounts of air pollution leading to serious smog. In 2013, China issued an

action plan for air pollution prevention and control, which included nine UHV line projects

(“Four UHV AC lines and Five UHV DC lines”), all of which were put into operation in

2017. The nine UHV lines, with a transmission capacity of 85 GW, delivered a total of 330

TWh of electricity from 2018 to 2019. They transferred clean energy from western China

to the load centers in eastern and central China, reducing coal consumption by 140

million tons and air pollutants by 1.5 million tons annually.

Driven by the China Energy Interconnection, China is leading the world in the

development of clean energy. China’s installed capacity of clean energy has reached

930 GW, of which its installed capacity of hydro, wind and PV power ranks first in the

world. As clean energy replaces about 800 million tons of steam coal each year, 1.5

billion tons of CO₂and 8 million tons of air pollutants will be reduced. It is estimated that

by 2035 and 2050, the China Energy Interconnection will reduce air pollutant emissions

by 15 million and 27 million tons, respectively, each year.

Figure 1 Transmission tower of UHV power grid

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2 Promoting freshwater pollution control

Due to unreasonable energy consumption and industrial activities, a large amount of toxic and

harmful wastewater has been discharged into rivers and lakes, posing a serious threat to

aquatic animals and plants and freshwater ecosystems. The GEI will greatly reduce the use of

fossil fuels, boost the development of new green industries, and eliminate high-pollution and

high-emission industries, thus radically curbing the freshwater pollution from industrial sources.

Reducing the Use of Fossil Fuels and Wastewater Discharge. To control water pollution, priority

should be given to cutting off the discharge of pollutants from the source. GEI development will

accelerate clean replacement and substantially reduce wastewater discharge in mining and

transportation, and reduce the usage of fossil fuels, thereby helping to reduce freshwater

pollution at the root. Through GEI development, clean energy replacement will continue to

speed up worldwide. The demand for coal, oil, and natural gas will peak before 2030, after

which it will rapidly decline. In 2050, the total demand for fossil fuels will drop to 4.9 Gtce, down

68% from 2016. The proportion of clean energy in the primary energy consumption will

continue to rise to 37% and 75% by 2035 and 2050, respectively. By 2050, industrial

wastewater, chemical oxygen demand (COD), and ammonia nitrogen emissions caused by the

consumption of fossil fuels will all drop by more than 60%, thus restoring the ecosystems of

rivers and lakes.

GEI Will Guarantee Power Supply and Promote Ecological Governance of Freshwater.

Large-scale exploitation of fossil fuels is the main cause of water pollution. Through building

GEI, the share of fossil fuels in primary energy consumption will drop to less than 30% by 2050,

alleviating water pollution from the consumption of fossil fuels by a large margin. With a

sufficient and economic power supply and advanced sewage treatment and purification

technologies, large-scale sewage treatment will be implemented to further advance the

ecological restoration of freshwater. In urban areas of China, the electricity consumption for

treating 1 m³of sewage stands at 0.2-0.3 kWh, and the electricity cost accounts for 25%-45%

of the total. As the price of electricity drops, the cost of freshwater ecological management will

be further reduced, making sewage treatment more economical.

3 Reducing solid waste pollution

The discharge of solid waste will result in serious soil, freshwater and ocean pollution, causing

great wildlife damage, barren lands, changes in microbial communities, and a seriously

negative impact on biodiversity. GEI development can reduce the emission of solid waste and

increase the recycling of waste, playing a crucial role in the treatment of waste pollution.

GEI Will Prompt the Development of Biomass Generation and Reduce Biomass Waste

Pollution. GEI is a crucial enabler for the large-scale development, transmission and

consumption of clean energy. It will bolster the development of biomass power generation, and

enhance the recycling of solid waste such as rice husk, straw, biogas, wood waste and

garbage. Converting such waste to electricity will help to reduce carbon emissions. By 2050,

the installed capacity of waste-to-energy plants will exceed 200 GW, and 2.6 billion tons of

waste will be processed each year, dramatically reducing solid waste pollution.

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Column 5-2

Biomass Power Generation

Biomass energy is the chemical energy form of solar energy stored in biomass, that is,

with biomass as the carrier. Energy is synthesized from CO₂and water through plant

photosynthesis, and the same amount of CO₂and water is generated after sufficient

combustion. Biomass energy is a form of renewable energy with zero carbon emissions

throughout its life cycle. In modern times, cutting-edge biomass conversion technology

is utilized to produce high-grade fuels such as solids, liquids, and gases, which can be

used in a variety of ways. Biomass can be directly used for cooking, indoor heating,

industrial processes, power generation and combined heat and power generation. It can

also be converted into combustible gas, charcoal, chemical products, and liquid fuels

(gasoline, diesel, etc.) through thermochemical conversion, which can replace natural

gas, coal and transportation fuels. Through combining biomass energy and CCS,

BECCS will secure negative CO₂emissions and offer an important technical solution for

accelerating carbon emission reduction.

In 2018, worldwide biomass production reached 1.89 Gtce, accounting for 9.2% of total

energy production, of which 9.6 Gtce, 300 Mtce, 290 Mtce, 130 Mtce, 40 Mtce, and 20

Mtce of biomass was used for residential living, power generation and heating, industrial

production, transportation, commercial services, and agriculture and forestry. In 2020,

the global installed capacity of renewable energy power generation reached 2.8 TW, of

which the installed capacity of biomass power generation came to 130 GW, accounting

for approximately 4.6% of the total capacity, as shown in Figure 1^A. As of the end of 2020,

China’s installed capacity of biomass power generation and relevant annual generating

capacity reached 29.52 GW and 132.6 TWh respectively.

Figure 1 Installed Capacity of Biomass Power Generation

__________

ASource: IRENA, Renewable Capacity Statistics 2021, 2021.

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GEI Will Promote Clean Replacement and Reduce Related Waste Emissions. When it comes to

energy production, GEI can prompt the replacement of coal and oil with clean energy such as

solar, wind and hydro, and bolster the replacement of coal and oil with electricity on the energy

consumption side, greatly reducing coal and oil consumption, as shown in Figure 5.20. These

efforts will reduce the encroachment of land resources and the secondary pollution of soil

caused by coal and petroleum-related solid waste including coal gangue, fly ash, coal slime,

caustic sludge and waste catalysts.

Figure 5.20 GEI Reduces Coal and Oil Demand

GEI Will Reduce Electricity Costs and Promote Waste Management and Utilization. The

bio-safety or recycling of solid waste requires the comprehensive use of compression, crushing,

classifying, solidification, incineration, and biological treatment technologies and relevant

equipment. The lack of access to electricity and high electricity prices are the two main

constraints on the popularization and application of solid waste treatment equipment. GEI will

advance the coordinated development of large clean energy bases and distributed power

sources, and accelerate the interconnection and extension of power grids. As a result, it will

greatly increase the power accessibility, reduce energy costs and provide a clean and

economical energy insurance for the treatment and recycling of solid waste, thus alleviating

solid waste pollution.

Column 5-3

Garbage Transfer Stations

Domestic garbage transfer stations are used to efficiently deliver garbage from the

source to the treatment and disposal facility.

Modern transfer stations are equipped with a large garbage compressor, which can

reduce the volume of garbage by half. As a result, it can increase the carrying capacity

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of garbage trucks, reduce the number of trucks required, and cut down transportation

costs. Hence, the garbage transfer station acts as an indispensable link in the modern

urban garbage collection and transportation system.

Figure 1 Garbage Transfer Station

5.3.3 Dramatically Reducing Habitat Loss

1 Reducing marine ecological damage

Since the industrial revolution, the acidification of oceans caused by offshore oil spills, thermal

pollution from coastal power plants, and CO₂emissions has a strong impact on marine

ecosystems and resources. Fossil fuels are the main culprits of the deterioration of the marine

ecological environment. GEI will reduce the production and consumption of fossil fuels, as well

as reducing carbon emission, thereby greatly relieve marine pollution and acidification, so as to

protect marine ecology.

GEI will reduce oil development and transportation, and hence reduce offshore oil spills. GEI

will catalyze the replacement of fossil fuels with clean energy, reduce offshore oil development,

replace oil trade with electricity trade, and reduce offshore oil transportation. Clean energy

power generation will dominate energy production, as will the power trade in energy trade,

greatly reducing the risk of offshore oil leakage in the development of offshore oilfields, pipeline

transportation, and seagoing tanker transportation. By 2050, the installed capacity of clean

energy will exceed 35.1 TW, the annual power generation capacity will top79000 TWh, and the

cross-border and cross-regional power flow will reach 660 GW. Cost-effective clean electricity

will offer a strong boost to the sustainable development of all countries. The offshore

development and transportation of oil will be phased out, protecting the marine ecosystem

from oil spill pollution.

GEI will reduce coastal power plants and protect coastal ecology. With developed economies

and large populations, coastal areas are home to many energy production centers like thermal

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and nuclear power plants. Due to the cooling of power plants, a large amount of waste heat is

discharged into the ocean, which poses a serious threat to the marine ecology. GEI can not

only catalyze the development of clean energy in coastal areas, but also facilitate the

long-distance transmission of wind power and PV power from inland areas to coastal areas to

replace thermal and nuclear power, greatly reducing the thermal pollution of the energy

industry to the ocean. In coastal areas, replacing 1 GW of thermal power with clean energy

power can reduce cooling water emission of about 400 million to 700 million m³, which helps

restore dissolved oxygen content in water and maintain the ecological balance. As of the end

of 2020, China has put into operation 30 UHV projects, including 14 UHV AC projects and 16

UHV DC projects, continuously transmitting clean energy power from western and northern

China to the eastern coastal areas, with a trans-provincial and trans-regional power

transmission capacity of 140 GW. The cumulative power transmission capacity exceeds 2500

TWh, which is equivalent to saving 140 GW in the construction of power plants in the eastern

coastal areas, making important contributions to the protection of the eastern coastal

ecosystem.

Column 5-4

Waste Heat from Coastal Power Plants

Threatens Marine Ecosystems

Thermal and nuclear power plants require a large amount of continuous supply of

cooling water during the power generation process for the cooling of heat engines. To

this end, many thermal and nuclear power plants are located in coastal areas and use

sea water as a cooling water. (Nearly one fifth of China’s thermal and nuclear power

capacity is located in coastal areas.) Studies show that the thermal efficiency of thermal

power plants is about 40%, and that of nuclear power plants is less than 35%, so a large

amount of waste heat is discharged into the nearby sea with the cooling water.

The thermal discharge from coastal power plants causes ocean warming, which will

reduce the solubility of dissolved oxygen in the coastal waters and have an adverse

effect on marine life. Especially under high temperature and windless conditions in

summer, the decrease of dissolved oxygen concentration will cause ocean hypoxia and

even asphyxia. The temperature rise caused by warm water discharge could degrade

the living conditions of aquatic life, cause changes in the number and diversity of

plankton, and make heat-resistant species begin to increase and become dominant

species. The population structure, growth and reproduction of many aquatic animals are

restricted and affected by water temperature. Among them, fish are the most sensitive to

water temperature, and fish will rise to the water surface to breathe due to lack of oxygen.

A large number of studies suggest that when the temperature rises above the adaptive

threshold of fish and cultured life in water, it will cause abnormal metabolism and even

death of aquatic life.

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2 Reducing deforestation

In recent years, affected by climate change, environmental pollution, and deforestation, the

forest ecology has been severely damaged, leading to accelerated extinction of forest-based

species. GEI will greatly reduce the exploitation of fossil fuels, curb the emission of greenhouse

gases and pollutants, protect the forest ecosystem, develop diversified industries by providing

clean and economical electricity, and reduce the deforestation for economic benefits.

GEI will alleviate climate change and acid rain, and protect forest ecosystems. GEI can achieve

the world’s targets on reducing carbon emissions, control climate change, and reduce SO₂

emissions by 64% to 86% and NO_xemissions by 56% to 84% by 2050 (Figure 5.21). This will

greatly mitigate the impact of climate change and acid rain on forest ecosystems. The forest is

home to more than 80% of the world’s animals and plants on land. Therefore, protecting forest

ecosystems is vital for conserving biodiversity and maintaining harmony between human

beings and nature.

Figure 5.21 SO₂and NO_xEmissions by 2050^A

__________

ASource: GEIDCO, Resolving the Crisis, Beijing: China Electric Power Press, 2020.

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GEI will expedite industry diversification and reduce people’s dependence on forest resources.

Many developing countries have to rely on log exports due to their single-product economy, or

grow cash crops after logging the primitive forest to maintain the fragile national economy. If

alternative industries cannot gain ground, it is neither feasible nor fair to simply ask them to

“protect the forest”. GEI can help developing countries, especially the least developed

countries, build advanced energy and power infrastructures, introduce modernized

development models, management mechanisms and innovative technologies, and accelerate

the industrialization by expediting the development of steel, metallurgy, chemical engineering,

automobile, electromechanical, textile, and food industries. GEI will also propel the

development of ecological agriculture such as soilless cultivation and multi-storied planting

and breeding, reduce the deforestation for land reclamation, and lift developing countries out

of the dilemma of seeking development by deforestation. For example, Africa can base the

development of African Energy Interconnection on its advantages in clean energy and mineral

resources, realize the co-development of electricity, mining, metallurgy, industry and trade,

perfect its industrial system, and achieve a higher level and sustainable development.

Column 5-5

Co-development of

Electricity-mining-metallurgy-industry-trade

Promotes Diversified Industrial Development

Many countries in Africa, Southeast Asia and South America that are rich in clean energy

and mineral resources are facing urgent development challenges. On the one hand, the

abundant clean energy potential cannot be developed due to the lack of capital, market

and related technologies, resulting in power shortages. On the other hand, mineral

resources can only be exported as primary products because of the lack of access to

electricity to carry out deep smelting and processing. The resource advantages of these

developing countries cannot be fully utilized, which has become a bottleneck restricting

their economic development. On the basis of in-depth research, GEIDCO has proposed

a new model of the co-development of electricity-mining-metallurgy-industry-trade. This

model will synergize Africa’s advantages in clean energy and mineral resources,

develop large clean energy bases, and build regional energy interconnection. These

efforts will forge a coordinated industry chain of electricity, mining, metallurgy, industry

and trade, in which sufficient and economically competitive clean electricity will be a

reliable powerhouse to the development and production of mines, metallurgy bases and

industrial parks. This will promote a shift in the focus of export, from primary products to

high value-added products, giving a rise to a virtuous cycle of “investment-

development-production-export-reinvestment”. It will comprehensively improve the scale,

quality and efficiency of Africa’s economy.

This model resolves the development dilemma faced by Africa and other regions. Under

this model, during the project development, the power generation, power transmission

and electricity use parties sign contracts to form an enterprise group featuring benefit

sharing, risk sharing and mutual support. Relying on the endogenous value of the project,

enterprise capital and credit, financing is made from syndicate, consortium and social

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capital to ensure the implementation of the project, as shown in Figure 1. This line of

thought has enabled the development of clean energy to solve problems with the

electricity market and financing. It also enables mining and smelting to resolve problems

with electricity supply, removing the shackles that restrict economic development. At the

industrial level, this model has changed the mode of different industries developing

separately without overall planning, and built an industrial chain featuring coordinated

development, thereby realizing cluster development and accelerating industrialization.

At the national level, this model has given full play to the complementary advantages of

different countries in resource endowment, geographical location, and economic

structure, promoted cross-border resource integration, and fostered a large market

where all countries can obtain benefits, thus achieving coordinated development and

common prosperity.

This model has brought in great economic benefits. Taking Africa as an example, in

terms of energy supply, clean energy will account for more than 45% of Africa’s primary

energy by 2050. The average electricity price will drop by more than 5 U.S. cents/kWh

compared with the current level, slashing the electricity cost by more than 160 billion U.S.

dollars per year. As for economic growth, the total output value of Africa’s industries such

as electrolytic aluminum and steel will exceed 480 billion U.S. dollars by 2050, and its

exports will exceed 100 billion U.S. dollars. Exports of clean electricity will top 36 billion

U.S. dollars. Infrastructure construction and industrialization will create more than 100

million jobs.

Figure 1 Co-development of Electricity-Mining-Metallurgy-Industry-Trade

3 Reducing habitat loss

Resource exploitation and infrastructure development will destroy the ecological environment,

with an adverse impact on biodiversity. On the basis of meeting human’s needs on resource

exploitation, priority should be given to improving the efficiency of land resource utilization and

enhancing the environmental friendliness of infrastructure. GEI, an important platform for the

large-scale optimal allocation of clean energy, can radically improve the efficiency of resource

development, reduce channel utilization, and maintain the harmony between energy utilization

and natural conservation.

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GEI will coordinate the development of clean energy and reduce habitat loss. GEI will

coordinate the planning of clean energy development and grid interconnection projects, delimit

the ecological conservation red line, reasonably avoid environmentally sensitive areas, and

minimize the damage to biological habitats caused by energy development. These endeavors

will enable power infrastructure to coexist harmoniously with different biological species such

as animals and plants, as well as different ecosystems such as deserts, wetlands and forests

(Figure 5.22). It is estimated that by 2050, through scientific development, systematic planning,

and overall layout, GEI will expedite the efficient development and utilization of clean energy,

reduce the impact of energy utilization on biological habitats, and avoid the extinction of more

than 40% of bird species and more than 60% of amphibian species, thus protecting

biodiversity^A.

Figure 5.22 GEI Alleviates Habitat Loss

GEI will strengthen the management of power grid projects and reduce their impact on habitats.

Power grid is an important form of energy infrastructure and a vital enabler for the construction

of ecological civilization. GEI will integrate biodiversity protection into all aspects of the

construction and operation of the energy interconnection, minimizing the impact on the

biological environment. In the construction phase, new technologies, processes and materials

that are conducive to environmental protection will be put into use. Through implementing

environmental protection and water and soil conservation measures, GEI will reduce the impact

of construction activities on the surrounding environment, and avoid vegetation deterioration

and water and soil erosion. In the operation phase, GEI will strictly implement environmental

protection standards, strengthen the operation and maintenance management of pollution

prevention facilities, enhance technical supervision and environmental management, and

ensure that noise control, wastewater treatment, and the electromagnetic environment meet the

standards, maintaining the balance between project construction and natural protection.

__________

ASource: GEIDCO, Resolving the Crisis, Beijing: China Electric Power Press, 2020.

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Column 5-6

Environmental Assessment of Belo Monte

Hydropower UHV DC Transmission Project Phase II

The Phase II of Brazil’s Belo Monte Hydropower UHV DC Transmission Project (Figure 1)

passes through the Amazon Rainforest or the “Lungs of the Earth”, the Brasilia Plateau

and the Rio Hills, and spans 863 rivers in five basins, including the Amazon Basin and

the Tocantins River, with a complex ecological system, varied terrain and great cultural

differences. In tropical rainforests, dozens of epiphytic plants can be found on a single

tree, and all the unique and rare species have to be “transplanted”. Brazil has rolled out

more than 20000 environmental protection laws, making it the country with the most

environmental protection regulations in the world, with complicated approval procedures

and extremely strict approval conditions. The environmental assessment of the Phase II

of the Belo Monte project can be considered as “the most stringent environmental

assessment in history”.

Figure 1 Phase II of Belo Monte UHV DC Transmission Project

In order to ensure that the project met the requirements of environmental protection, the

project team of State Grid Corporation of China have selected several areas deep in the

forest along the transmission line, and during a years’ time, it conducted detailed

observations and records of the species and quantity of animals and plants in the

rainforest. It took them half a year to complete socio-economic surveys and assessments

on indigenous tribes, population, economy, education, medical care, transportation, etc.

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11 hearings were held in 10 cities along the line to hear the opinions of local

governments and people on the assessment of environmental impacts. A total of 56

volumes of environmental survey reports and environmental impact assessment reports

were completed, and 19 schemes were proposed for geographical environment

protection, animal and plant protection, and malaria prevention and control. In August

2017, after 25 months of environmental assessment, the design scheme of the Phase II

of the Belo Monte project finally passed the “strictest project environmental assessment

in history”, securing the harmony between project construction and ecological

environment.

GEI will promote the application of UHV transmission technology and reduce land footprint.

UHV transmission technology can realize long-distance, large-capacity, low-loss, and highly

safe power transmission. The transmission power and corridor efficiency of 1000 kV UHV AC

line are 4-5 times and 3 times that of 500 kV AC line, respectively, and the transmission power

and corridor efficiency of ±1100 kV UHV DC line are 4-5 times and 1.8 times that of ±500 kV

DC line, respectively. GEI will promote the development of UHV power grids, enhance the grid

allocation capabilities, and substantially reduce the land footprint while ensuring global power

supply. It is estimated that the GEI grid network consisting of “nine horizontal lines and nine

vertical lines” will be built by 2050, with a total length of more than 180000 km, saving more

than 60% of land resources.

5.3.4 Effectively Promoting the Sustainable Use of Biological Resources

1 Replacing firewood with electricity

Currently, nearly 800 million people in the world have no access to electricity, and 2.4 billion

people still use firewood to cook their food.^ADue to the lack of modern power facilities,

hundreds of millions of residents in Africa, South Asia, Central and South America and other

regions have to take deforestation as their main, if not only, way to obtain energy. GEI can

promote large-scale development, large-scale allocation, and efficient use of clean energy

such as hydro-energy, wind energy, and solar energy in these regions, providing economical

clean energy for people without access to electricity. By 2050, the electricity penetration rate

will approach 100%, and the LCOE will drop by 40%, so as to ensure access to affordable,

reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all, greatly reduce deforestation for access to

energy, and effectively conserve forest resources.

2 Promoting the popularization and application of food preservation equipment

Due to the lack of access to electricity or high electricity prices, refrigerators, refrigeration

houses and other food preservation facilities cannot be widely used in many parts of the world,

making it difficult to preserve food, which leads to large amounts of food waste and increasing

consumption of biological resources. GEI can provide these countries and regions with a clean,

economical and sustainable power supply, promote the popularization of refrigeration and

__________

ASource: FAO, The State of the World’s Forests, 2020.

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preservation facilities, and extend the lifetime of foods, as shown in Table 5.1. This will reduce

food waste and promote the economical use of biological resources. A report from FAO

suggests that about 1.3 billion tons of food is wasted globally every year, accounting for about

one third of the total food production. If the application level of refrigeration equipment in

developing countries would be equivalent to that in developed countries, about 25% of food

waste in developing countries could be avoided^A.

Table 5.1 Food Freshness Lifetime at Varied Temperatures

Freshness lifetime at different temperatures

Type of food

10℃ higher than

20℃ higher than

30℃ higher than

ideal temperature

At ideal temperature

ideal temperature

Fresh fish

Milk

10 days below 0℃

Two weeks below 0℃

1 month below 0℃

4-5 days

7 days

1-2 days

2-3 days

1 week

Several hours

Green vegetables

2 weeks

Less than two days

at 4-12℃

Potato

Less than 2 months Less than 1 month

Less than 2 weeks

5-10 months

3 Promoting the popularization and application of electrosynthesis of fuels and raw

materials

For the purpose of obtaining energy, materials and food, large amounts of biological resources

such as wood and meat are exploited in an unreasonable fashion, causing serious biodiversity

loss. GEI will promote green and renewable energy such as solar and wind energy to replace

fossil fuels and dominate the energy system, thus ensuring clean, economical, efficient and

sustainable power supply. GEI will also further expedite “One Conversion”, that is, utilizing

clean energy power generation technology to convert CO₂, water and other substances into

fuels and raw materials like hydrogen, methane, methanol and protein. By doing so, GEI can

address the scarcity of production resources from a deeper and broader dimension, meet

people’s demand for energy, materials and even food, and reduce dependence on biological

resources.

The electrosynthesis of fuels can provide access to economical and high-efficiency fuels such

as hydrogen, methane, and methanol, thus completely getting rid of the dependence on

firewood, and reducing the consumption of forest resources. The electrosynthesis of protein

can increase the sources of protein and reduce the overexploitation of animal and plant

resources for obtaining protein.

__________

ASource: FAO, HOW Access to Energy Can Influence Food Losses.

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Column 5-7

Electrosynthesis of Methane,

Methanol and Protein

1. Electrosynthesis of Methane and Methanol

Methane is a type of widely used fuel and methanol is the basic raw material for organic

chemicals. In addition to generating hydrogen fuels, electrohydrogen production can

use hydrogen to reduce CO₂to produce methane (main component of natural gas),

methanol and other simple organics, and further generate a variety of complex alkane

fuels such as gasoline and diesel.

The conversion efficiency of products such as methane and methanol exceed 90%, but

the cost is relatively high. Only when the electricity price falls to 0.5 U.S. cents/kWh can

the cost of electrosynthesis of methane be equivalent to the user-side price of natural

gas (USD 0.7/kg). Only when electricity price drops to 1.2 U.S. cents/kWh can the cost of

electrosynthesis of methanol be equivalent to that of fossil fuels-based methanol

production (USD 0.4/kg), as shown in Figure 1. It is expected that by 2050, as

technology continues to advance, energy conversion efficiency will be greatly improved,

equipment costs will be reduced by 80%, and electricity prices will drop to 2 U.S.

cents/kWh. Hence the cost of electrosynthesis of methane is expected to drop to USD

0.43-0.57/m³, and that of electrosynthesis of methanol is expected to fall to USD

0.28-0.37/kg, which is basically the same as the current price, creating an enabling

environment for the industrialization of the electrosynthesis of methane and methanol.

Figure 1 Comparison of the Cost of Electrosynthesis of Methane and Methanol with Current Prices

2. Electrosynthesis of Protein

In 2019, Solar Foods in Finland created Solein, a type of single-cell protein food, using

only electricity, water and air in a production process similar to brewing beer. In the

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production, electrolysis of water and CO₂is used to produce organics by soaking

microorganisms in a special liquid to produce protein, which looks and tastes similar to

wheat flour and can be used in various diets or as a food material. Solein contains

65%-75% protein, 10%-20% carbohydrates, 4%-10% fat and 4%-10% minerals. The cost

of producing Solein is about USD 6/kg, which is mainly spent on electricity consumption.

Solar Foods plans to open its first Solein plant by the end of 2021 and increase the

annual output to 2000000 tons by 2022.

5.3.5 Vigorously Promoting Ecological Restoration

1 Promoting desertified land management

Low rainfall and scarce vegetation in desert areas impede the survival of animals and plants.

However, solar energy resources are abundant in desert areas. The average solar radiation

intensity in northern Africa, Central Asia, and western South America exceeds 2500 kWh/m²,

demonstrating predominance in resources. GEI will promote the development and utilization of

solar energy resources, and coordinate efforts in desert governance, creation of benefits

based on resource exploitation, and upgrading of development models (Figure 5.23), realizing

the restoration of desert ecological environment driven by energy development.

Figure 5.23 GEI Promotes Desert Land Governance

PV desertification control advances the reversion of desert land. PV, solar thermal power

generation and other clean energy power generation facilities can slow down the ground wind

speed, reduce the impact of precipitation and soil moisture evaporation, and prevent deserts

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from expanding too quickly. It is estimated that building a 1 GW ecological PV project can

reduce CO₂emissions by about 1.2 million tons per year, with a wind prevention and sand

fixation area of 4000 hectares, which is equivalent to planting 640000 trees, demonstrating

remarkable ecological benefits. Through simultaneously carrying out clean energy development

and desertification control in mildly desertified areas, GEI will create a green and low-carbon

artificial ecosystem, realize the comprehensive utilization of land, and revitalize the deserts.

China’s Inner Mongolia has succeeded in launching PV desertification control, as shown in

Column 5-8.

Column 5-8

PV Desertification Control in

Inner Mongolia, China

The Kubuqi Desert in Dalad Banner, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is the seventh

largest desert in China, covering an area of about 1.45 million hectares, of which about

61% is moving dunes. With abundant solar energy resources, the Kubuqi Desert has

more than 3180 hours of sunshine duration per year, a natural endowment well-suited for

the development of the PV industry (Figure 1).

In December 2017, the local government completed a 500 MW PV power station with an

investment of 3.75 billion yuan on the edge of the desert. The station was connected to

the grid for power generation in December 2017. By the end of 2019, its cumulative

generating capacity reached 810 GWh, with an output value of 280 million yuan. In June

2019, the National Energy Administration of China decided to build another 500 MW PV

power station in the region. After completion, the Phase II of the project will be integrated

with Phase I, constituting China’s largest centralized PV power generation base in desert

and the world’s largest PV desertification control project.

Figure 1 PV Project in Kubuqi Desert

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Interconnection enables the creation of benefits based on desert resource exploitation. GEI

plays a vital role in the development and utilization of clean energy in deserts. On the one hand,

GEI will transform ecological environmental disadvantages into advantages in clean energy

utilization, and generate huge economic value by sending clean electricity to areas with heavy

power load through large power grids. On the other hand, through clean energy delivery,

industrial structure upgrading, and coordinated development of resources, GEI will advance

afforestation, soil remediation, and ecological project construction, thereby ensuring the

coordinated and sustainable development of economy, society and environment. By 2050, GEI

will have greatly facilitated the implementation of plenty of desert ecological restoration

projects in the northern Sahara Desert, the central Atacama Desert, and the southern

Taklimakan Desert.

Electricity-water-land-forest permits a new model of desert governance. GEI development

requires the “electricity-water-land-forest” ecological restoration, that is, using clean electricity

to implement seawater desalination, increasing the freshwater resources required for

ecological restoration, combining the prevention, treatment and utilization of desertified land,

and forging a virtuous circle of energy development, seawater desalination, and ecological

management (Figure 5.24), so as to further catalyze the restoration of the ecological

environment. By building GEI, the area of PV power stations in desertified areas will reach up to

650000 km²by 2050, and nearly 1 million km²of desertified areas will be directly treated^A.

Figure 5.24 GEI Creates a New Model of Desert Governance

Column 5-9

Electricity-water-land-forest Development

Model and Its Application

Electricity: based on the development of clean electricity. In coastal areas rich in wind

and solar energy resources, all countries should intensify their efforts to develop clean

energy, build large clean energy bases, and strengthen the construction of transnational

__________

ASource: GEIDCO, GEI Action Plan for Promoting Global Environmental Protection, 2019.

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Promoting Biodiversity Protection through the Energy and Electric Power Revolution

and inter-regional power transmission channels and local power grids, providing

sufficient and reliable clean electricity supply.

Water: focusing on increasing the supply of water resources. All countries should

develop and promote the coupling system of seawater desalination and clean electricity

generation, adopt seawater desalination technology to increase the supply of freshwater

resources in coastal water-deficient areas, reduce the cost of seawater desalination,

ensure water supply for production and life, and seek more ways to efficiently use water

resources.

Land: taking optimization of land use as an enabler. All countries should expedite the

restoration of wetlands, grasslands and other surface vegetation through natural

conservation solutions such as protection, restoration and improvement of land

management.

Forest: taking the development of forestry as an approach. All countries should adopt

methods such as afforestation, reasonable rotation of tree felling, forest management,

and vegetation restoration to promote forestry development, accelerate tree growth,

expand forestry area, and improve forest ecology.

2 Promoting marine ecological restoration

Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities have undermined the marine ecosystems,

leading to a rapid loss of biodiversity. Therefore, promoting the restoration of marine ecology,

the rational development and utilization of marine resources is the route we must take to secure

sustainable development. GEI will propel the construction of ecological projects with sufficient

supply of clean electricity, blazing a new trail towards ecological restoration of waters.

GEI will strengthen ecological monitoring and promote marine ecological restoration. Marine

ecological management is a systematic project which requires comprehensive use of

engineering, technology and other means to restore the damaged marine ecosystem structure

according to local conditions. GEI will boost the construction of a three-dimensional marine

ecological monitoring system integrating remote sensing satellites, UAVs, offshore stations,

and shore-based stations with sufficient clean electricity, so as to improve the protection of

ecosystems. Besides, efforts will be made to facilitate the construction of a monitoring system

for marine emissions, and implement land-sea integrated pollution prevention and control to

reduce marine pollution. GEI will also promote the implementation of marine ecological

restoration projects, and accelerate the virtuous cycle of the marine system, thus securing

sustainable development.

GEI will stimulate clean energy development and forge an ecological marine industrial system.

Our oceans host abundant resources and is of strategic importance for high-quality

development. GEI will accelerate the development of technologies and equipment such as port

shore power and electric ships, and drive the construction of green and smart ports. It will also

133

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

facilitate the construction of offshore wind power, tidal power generation, and cross-sea

interconnected channel projects, and promote the development of marine resources and

cooperation on industrial capacity. It is estimated that by 2050, the global installed capacity of

offshore wind power will reach 200 GW, driving the development of related industries and

creating a new engine for the development of green marine economy.

3 Reducing biological invasion

Biological invasions have severely undermined the ecological balance of the new habitats,

posing a threat to local species. The long-distance transportation of fossil fuels and climate

change are two major causes for the migration and invasion of microorganisms, plants and

animals into other ecosystems. GEI development requires the promotion of “Two Replacements,

One Increase, One Restore and One Conversion”. By doing so, biological invasion caused by

long-distance transportation of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas will be greatly reduced.

Progress will be made in advancing the reduction of carbon emission in the global energy

system to achieve the target of controlling global temperature rise to 1.5℃ by the end of this

century, thus minimizing the biological invasion caused by climate change. With these efforts,

GEI will play an active role in protecting the ecosystem and conserving biodiversity, as shown

in Figure 5.25.

Figure 5.25 GEI Reduces Biological Invasion

134

6

Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

6

Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

135

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

The development of GEI offers an innovative way to promote biodiversity

conservation via the energy and power revolution. This chapter takes reduction of

the impact of the five major drivers of biodiversity as its aim, proposing 6

sub-programs and 21 key measures to that end, as shown in Figure 6.1. These

revolve around the use of GEI to promote climate governance, environmental

governance, habitat protection, sustainable use of biological resources,

ecological restoration and emergency protection, and technological innovation at

the planning, policy, industry, engineering, and technological levels, taking into

account the actual levels of development of each continent and region. Thus they

offer countries effective, technologically advanced, cost-efficient, well-qualified,

replicable, scalable systematic solutions for improving biodiversity conservation.

Figure 6.1 Six Action Plans for GEI-based Biodiversity Promotion

6.1 Plan for Promoting GEI-based Climate Governance

To construct GEI, the promotion and application of negative emission technologies such as

clean energy development, grid interconnection, electricity replacement at end-use, and

CCUS must be accelerated. So too must the reduction of carbon emissions during energy

production, distribution and use, in order to realize net zero emissions for the entire energy

system by 2050, limiting the global temperature rise to 1.5 ℃ or less by the end of the century,

and significantly reducing the impact of climate change on biodiversity.

136

6

Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

6.1.1 Accelerate Reduction of Emissions during Energy Production

Clean energy resources such as solar, wind, and hydro power must be vigorously developed,

while intracontinental energy and grid interconnection must be promoted, increasing the

proportion of clean energy in primary energy consumption to 37% and 75%, by 2035 and 2050,

respectively, and total installed clean energy capacity to 15.8 TW and 35.2 TW, respectively, for

2035 and 2050, accounting for 81% and 95% of total installed capacity in those years. By the

end of this century, the cumulative total CO₂emission reduction achieved through use of clean

alternatives could reach 1.8 trillion tons.

1 Asia

(1) Energy development

Clean energy such as solar, wind and hydro power should be vigorously developed to increase

their share in primary energy consumption to 30% and 72%, respectively, by 2035 and 2050.

The installed capacity of clean energy should reach 8.1 TW and 19.5 TW, respectively, by 2035

and 2050, accounting for 78% and 95% of the total in those years.

PV power plant construction: The development of 18 large-scale clean energy production

facilities, with a total installed capacity of 550 GW, in Xinjiang, Qinghai, Inner Mongolia, Tibet,

etc. should be accelerated. Development of 38 large-scale PV plants in Mongolia, Pakistan,

India, Central Asia and West Asia (Table 6.1) should be further promoted. These would have

total installed capacity of around 690 GW and annual power output of 1300 TWh, for a total

investment of around 322 billion U.S. dollars, and offer a levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of

1.8-3.3 cents/kWh.

Table 6.1 Information on Large-scale PV Power Plants in Asia

Annual

Land

area

average

radiation

Installed

capacity

(MW)

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

Production

plant name

power

output

(GWh)

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Country

（km²）

intensity

（kWh/m²）

1

2

Choyr

Gurvantes

Tavan tolgoi

Jaisalmer

Korner

Mongolia

India

297

29

1668

1781

1738

2029

2026

2017

2046

2049

1944

1953

8000

1000

14300

1848

3650

442

2.3

2.16

2.25

2.2

3

114

566

630

629

385

1002

612

413

4000

7244

1808

4

40200

36000

31900

30000

28200

24000

16100

73642

66071

59455

56464

59964

44142

29964

17952

15199

24022

13767

13065

10529

6808

5

India

2.08

2.05

2.2

6

Patan

India

7

Bhuj

India

8

Rajkot

India

1.96

2.15

2.05

9

Dulia

India

10

Aurangabad

India

137

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

continued

Annual

average

Annual

power

output

(GWh)

Land

area

Installed

capacity

(MW)

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

Production

plant name

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

radiation

intensity

Country

（km²）

（kWh/m²）

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

Pavagada

Madurai

Quetta

India

1018

307

490

680

243

120

333

269

58

1987

2030

2188

2202

2038

2031

1655

1554

1634

1755

1787

1851

1772

2303

2239

2246

2333

2303

2216

2283

1969

2061

2031

2201

2181

2131

2120

40400

20000

28000

35900

16100

7600

73138

36062

57472

73951

29755

13738

17492

14784

3207

17134

8616

12552

17044

7193

3195

6112

3992

959

2.11

1.91

1.97

2.08

2.18

2.1

India

Pakistan

Khuzdar

Matiari

Pakistan

Kilinochchi

Turkistan

Kapszagaj

Moynaq

Kungrad

Sri Lanka

Kazakhstan

Uzbekistan

11000

9600

3.15

2.44

2.7

2000

169

166

127

79

7500

12509

8460

3345

2394

2135

1521

7098

4986

6395

8314

4286

19866

17108

5295

8351

7978

6289

10772

10107

10059

1699

2.41

2.55

2.17

2.49

2.12

2.31

1.93

1.84

1.81

3.28

1.98

1.83

2.09

2.18

1.99

1.86

2

Turkmenabad Turkmenistan

5000

Mary

Dushak

Aflaj

Turkmenistan

Saudi Arabia

Oman

5000

8896

3300

5509

179

124

195

286

147

316

514

188

323

278

269

731

357

388

65

15100

10000

15100

20100

10100

27300

40200

12400

20100

17600

15000

25000

22500

4000

30188

19469

29891

40859

21415

54667

77956

26123

36109

33003

28584

52371

45504

46323

7825

El Obera

Riyadh

Hail

Tabuk

Sharim

Sweihan

Maan

UAE

Jordan

Amarah

Najaf

Iraq

Homs

Syria

Shirazi

Zahedan

Birjand

Kandahar

Iran

1.96

Afghanistan

Wind power plant construction. The development of 21 large onshore wind power plants in

Xinjiang, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Hebei, and 7 large offshore wind power plants in coastal

138

6

Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

areas such as Guangdong, Jiangsu, Fujian, Zhejiang and Shandong, with a total installed

capacity of 530 GW, should be accelerated. So too should be the construction of 39 large wind

power plants in Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, along the coasts of Japan and the Korean

Peninsula, and in other regions (please refer to Table 6.2). These would have total installed

capacity of 290 GW and annual power output of 900 TWh, for a total investment of around

286.2 billion U.S. dollars. The onshore wind power plants would offer an LCOE of 2.0-3.9 U.S.

cents/kWh; that for offshore wind power plants would be 4.0-7.4 U.S. cents/kWh.

Table 6.2 Information on Large-scale Wind Power Plants in Asia

Annual

average

wind speed

(m/s)

Annual

power

output

(GWh)

Land

area

Installed

capacity

(MW)

Total

investment

(M$)

LCOE

(cents/

kWh)

Order

number

Plant name

Country

(km²)

1

2

3

Wakkanai

Suzu

Japan

801

602

803

8.52

7.18

6.76

4000

3000

4000

15409

9485

6074

4452

5442

5.48

6.53

6.4

Kilju

North Korea

11825

Republic of

Korea

4

Pohang

1209

7.25

6000

19069

8636

6.65

5

6

Choibalsan

Mandalgobi

Omnodelger

Choyr

Mongolia

Vietnam

256

345

6.35

6.63

6.42

6.27

7.63

6.44

9.5

1000

2000

16000

8000

5000

3500

1000

2781

2881

702

705

2.89

2.8

7

1195

5141

1898

1002

1008

698

5494

1557

11419

6069

6754

6675

4882

1503

3.24

3.15

2.66

6.94

4.01

4.26

5.73

8

41348

26103

13542

23149

15962

3648

9

Tavan tolgoi

Quảng Ngãi

Bình Thuận

Ninh Thuận

Bangui

10

11

12

13

Vietnam

9.59

8.44

Philippines

203

Southern

Tagalog

14

Philippines

1137

8.2

4500

17222

6479

5.23

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

Jaisalmer

Bhachau

Rajkot

India

4865

5194

4023

8285

10114

2006

2799

995

5.74

6.37

6.78

6.14

5.77

6.2

23000

26000

20100

20300

19900

10000

14000

5000

55357

73646

56502

52287

44018

26590

62683

19145

10230

17728

33829

27255

14537

14840

12464

18275

6553

3.66

6.39

6.71

3.18

3.85

7.4

India

Bhuj

India

Saurapur

Chennai

Thoothukudi

Manar

India

8.89

8.28

7.45

4.06

4.76

5.36

Sri Lanka

Jaffna

605

3000

3930

139

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

continued

Annual

average

wind speed

Annual

power

output

Land

Installed

capacity

(MW）

Total

investment

(M$）

LCOE

(cents/

kWh）

Order

number

area

Plant name

Country

（km²）

（m/s）

(GWh）

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

Galo

Kinpier

Pakistan

979

448

6.52

5.89

7.76

7.27

7

4000

2000

3000

7000

6000

4000

3000

30100

5000

12053

5034

2765

1532

2410

5020

4337

2972

2368

2244

20898

4743

2.62

3.48

2.74

2.45

2.72

2.74

2.7

Baluch

Pakistan

726

10051

23428

18245

12413

10010

10772

86405

17031

Atyrau

Kazakhstan

Saudi Arabia

Oman

1531

1434

1416

2918

1170

6166

1169

Mangistau

Karaganda

Zhambyl

Turkistan

Dammam

Rakabi

7.17

7.61

8.18

6.34

7.93

2.38

2.76

3.18

Rasmad

Raqqah

34

Oman

407

7.73

2000

6740

1840

3.12

35

36

37

38

39

Ghuwariyah

Taizz

Qatar

Yemen

Syria

406

1064

198

6.08

8.78

6.31

8.48

9.57

2000

5000

1000

2000

4000

5364

20867

2874

5364

3617

688

3.11

1.98

2.74

2.41

2.05

Aleppo

Birjand

Herat

Iran

421

7344

1549

3127

Afghanistan

1134

17441

Hydropower plant construction. The development of over 10 hydropower plants, on sites

including the Jinsha River, Yalong River, Lancang River, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and

Sungai Mahakam, should be steadily progressed. These would have total installed capacity of

over 90 GW, and annual power output of over 0.4 trillion kWh.

(2) Energy Interconnection

Intracontinental interconnection. Six main synchronous power grids, in China, Southeast Asia,

Northeast Asia, South Asia, Central Asia and the surrounding areas, and West Asia, should be

steadily constructed, and the construction of power grids within these regions should be

strengthened. A 1000/765/500 kV main grids should be constructed in East Asia. In Southeast

Asia, a 1000 kV AC main grid should be constructed on the Indochinese Peninsula, with 500 kV

AC main grids in other regions. A 1000/500 kV AC synchronous power grids should be built for

the five countries of Central Asia. In South Asia mainly 765/400 kV AC power grids should be

constructed, while 1000/765/500/400 kV AC main grids should be constructed in West Asia.

Intercontinental interconnection. Power grids interconnecting Europe, Africa and Oceania should

be strengthened, creating a Europe-Asia-Africa pattern of intercontinental interconnection with

140

6

Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

“four horizontal and three vertical channels”. The “four horizontal channels” would be the

Northern Asia-Europe Horizontal Channel, the Southern Asia-Europe Horizontal Channel, the

Northern Asia-Africa Horizontal Channel and the Southern Asia-Africa Horizontal Channel. The

“three vertical channels” would be the Eastern Asian Vertical Channel, the Central Asian

Vertical Channel, and the Western Asian Vertical Channel.

Scale of power flows: by 2035 and 2050, intercontinental and cross-regional power flow would

reach 98.3 GW and 200 GW, respectively, of which intercontinental power flows would account

for 23 GW and 51 GW.

2 Europe

(1) Energy development

Production of clean energy, such as wind and solar energy, within each continent should be

vigorously developed, and active preparations made to receive clean energy from outside

each continent. By 2035 and 2050, the proportion of clean energy in primary energy

consumption should be increased to over 62% and 93%, respectively, and the installed

capacity of clean energy enhanced to 2.6 TW and 4.6 TW, accounting for 91% and 98% of the

total, respectively.

PV power plant development. The development of solar energy resources in countries with

abundant solar energy resources such as Spain, Greece, Portugal and Italy should be

prioritized. A large-scale PV power plant should be built in Andalusia, southern Spain, with an

installed capacity of around 720 MW, and annual power output of 1.3 TWh, for a total

investment of around 360 million U.S. dollars, offering an LCOE of 2.2 cents/kWh.

Wind power plant development. The construction of 17 large wind power plants in the Baltic,

North, Barents and Norwegian seas, and on Greenland and Iceland (Table 6.3), should be

accelerated. These would have total installed capacity of 160 GW, and annual power output of

700 TWh, for a total investment of around 263 billion U.S. dollars. The onshore wind power

plants would offer an LCOE of 2.7 U.S. cents/kWh; offshore wind power plants would offer an

LCOE of 4.9-7.1 U.S. cents/kWh.

Table 6.3 Information on Large-scale Wind Power Plants in Europe

Annual

average

wind speed

Annual

power

output

Land

area

Installed

capacity

（MW）

Total

investment

（M$）

LCOE

（cents/kWh）

Order

number

Plant name

Country

（km²）

（m/s）

（GWh）

1

2

Angus Plant, UK

UK

298

7.74

9.29

360

1237

349

2.66

5.59

Plant in eastern,

UK

6707

33500

146776

55731

Offshore plant,

Belgium

3

4

Belgium

1265

1707

9

6300

8500

26513

40249

10187

15579

5.65

5.7

Offshore plant,

Netherlands

The

Netherlands

9.84

141

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

continued

Annual

average

wind speed

Annual

power

output

Land

Installed

capacity

（MW）

Total

investment

（M$）

LCOE

（cents/kWh）

Order

number

area

Plant name

Country

（km²）

（m/s）

（GWh）

Plant in

northwest

Germany

5

6

Germany

Denmark

3181

1702

9.85

15900

8500

75779

41502

28318

13716

5.5

Offshore plant,

western

10.03

4.86

Denmark

Plant in southern

Norway

7

Norway

Denmark

Poland

1682

902

10.23

9.14

8.86

8.87

8.73

8.68

8.4

8400

4500

41916

19955

60913

12577

14333

8990

16002

6960

5.62

5.13

5.48

5.71

5.55

5.69

5.98

5.71

6.32

7.08

5.24

Offshore plant,

eastern Denmark

8

Offshore plant,

Poland

9

2925

602

14600

3000

22689

4880

Offshore plant,

Lithuania

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Lithuania

Latvia

Offshore plant,

Latvia

701

3500

5410

Offshore plant,

Estonia

Finland

Sweden

Norway

441

2200

3473

Offshore plant,

Finland

1142

2365

1062

2801

4128

5700

21875

47940

18800

55675

45223

8885

Offshore plant,

Sweden

8.63

8.39

9.84

7.79

11800

5100

18608

8022

Offshore plant,

Norwegian Sea

Plant in

Greenland

Denmark,

Iceland

14000

12300

26822

17390

Offshore plant,

Barents Sea

Russia,

Norway

(2) Energy interconnection

Intracontinental interconnection. The pace of implementation of Europe transnational grid

interconnection projects should be increased, connecting wind power plants in the Baltic,

Barents, North and Norwegian seas with hydropower plants in northern Europe. Various

projects should be constructed, including an ±800 kV DC grid, linking offshore wind power

from the North and Norwegian seas, and around Greenland, with hydropower from northern

Europe, an ±800/±660 kV DC grid linking offshore wind power from the Baltic and Barents seas,

and grid-type ±800/±660 kV DC ring networks in Western, Southern and Eastern Europe,

designed to receive large-scale supplies of clean energy and achieve complementarity

between countries.

142

6

Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

Intercontinental interconnection. Clean electricity from North Africa and West Asia should be

received, via an ±800/±660 kV DC grid transiting the Iberian, Apennine, and Balkan peninsulas,

as should electricity from Central Asia, via an ±800 kV DC grid, achieving complementarity

between Asia, Europe and Africa.

Power flow scale. Transcontinental and cross-regional power flows would reach 85 GW and

133 GW, respectively, by 2035 and 2050.

3 Africa

(1) Energy development

Clean energy plants, including solar, wind, and hydro, should be vigorously developed, in an

effort to improve the shares of clean energy in primary energy consumption to 40% and 64%,

and to increase installed clean energy capacity to 700 GW and 2.0 TW, accounting for70% and

90% of the total, by 2035 and 2050, respectively.

PV power plant development. The development of 21 large-scale PV plants (Table 6.4) in the

Sahara Desert and surrounding areas in central and northern Africa, on the southern

Atlantic coast and in some inland areas of east Africa should be accelerated. These would

have total installed capacity of approximately 90 GW and annual power output of 200 TWh,

for a total investment of around 48 billion U.S. dollars, and offer an LCOE of 1.9-2.3

cents/kWh.

Table 6.4 Information on Large-scale PV Plants in Africa

Annual

Land

area

average Installed

radiation capacity

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

power

output

(GWh)

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Plant name

Country

(km²)

intensity

(MW)

(kWh/m²)

1

2

Minya

Aswan

Ouargla

Laghwat

Josh

Egypt

152

131

82

2290

2375

2080

2029

2098

2200

2189

2092

2294

2103

2156

10000

5000

8000

5000

4000

3000

8000

2300

2000

1500

20748

20605

9142

14640

9381

7654

5766

15078

4478

3514

2700

4958

5222

2449

4257

2551

2194

1454

4114

1118

952

1.89

2.04

2.12

2.3

3

Algeria

Libya

4

138

87

5

2.15

2.27

2.01

2.16

1.98

2.14

2.11

6

Zag

Morocco

Tunisia

Niger

57

7

Zagora

Remada

Agadez

Kayes

Rosso

45

8

154

26

9

10

11

Mali

28

Mauritania

20

719

143

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

continued

Annual

average Installed

radiation capacity

Annual

power

output

(GWh)

Land

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Plant name

Country

area

(km²)

intensity

(MW)

(kWh/m²)

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

Ouagadougou Burkina Faso

25

158

23

2128

2180

2342

2314

2333

2349

2371

2246

2058

2320

2000

7000

2000

4000

2000

10000

2000

3561

13011

3934

3906

3954

3940

8514

4051

18738

4030

953

3690

964

2.12

2.24

1.94

1.97

1.94

2.32

1.85

2.08

2.25

1.89

Kano

Nigeria

Sudan

Dongola

Damir

Sudan

22

973

Dire Dawa

South Horr

Karasburg

Tshabong

Pretoria

Ethiopia

Kenya

21

968

29

1155

1931

1065

5324

963

Namibia

Botswana

South Africa

Angola

64

34

169

28

Lubango

Wind power plant development. The pace of development of 12 large wind power plants in the

Sahara Desert and surrounding areas in northern Africa, on the southern Atlantic coast, and in

some inland areas of eastern Africa (as shown in Table 6.5) should be increased. These would

have total installed capacity of approximately 21.4 GW and annual power output of 68.1 TWh,

for a total investment of around 20 billion U.S. dollars, and offer an LCOE of 1.8-3.6 U.S.

cents/kWh.

Table 6.5 Information on Large-scale Wind Power plants in Africa

Annual

Land

area

average Installed

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

power

output

(GWh)

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Plant name

Country

wind

speed

(m/s)

capacity

(MW)

(km²)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Matruh

Misrata

Gabes

Egypt

Libya

1002

207

278

302

588

315

208

302

444

6.69

6.48

7.51

6.78

8.12

9.8

5000

1000

1500

1000

1200

13201

3024

3338

4169

5335

4897

3542

3995

6784

4385

876

3.13

2.73

2.48

3.23

2.47

1.75

2.32

3.61

2.09

Tunisia

Algeria

Morocco

Sudan

Ethiopia

Kenya

878

Ghardaia

Zag

1429

1402

908

Red Sea

Duwaymy

Jijiga

7.73

7.75

10.68

872

1533

1509

North Horr

144

6

Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

continued

Annual

Land

area

average Installed

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

power

output

(GWh)

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Plant name

Country

wind

speed

(m/s)

capacity

(MW)

(km²)

10

11

12

Luderitz

Fraserburgh

Orapa

Namibia

South Africa

Botswana

208

1584

252

6.59

7.21

6.22

1000

5000

1000

2798

14481

2563

952

4399

885

3.2

2.86

3.25

Hydropower plant development. Development of 4 hydropower plants on the Congo, Nile,

Zambezi and Niger rivers, should be prioritized. With total installed capacity of over 140 GW,

these would offer annual power output of around 800 TWh.

(2) Energy interconnection

Intracontinental interconnection. The construction of three synchronous power grids in northern,

central and western, and eastern and southern Africa, should be accelerated, achieving

asynchronous interconnection between synchronous power grids using EHV/UHV DC

technology. The three synchronous power grids should be upgraded to EHV/UHV AC/DC

hybrid power grids. Within each synchronous power grid, AC transnational interconnection

should be realized at 1000/765/500/400 kV voltage levels. Interconnection between the

synchronous power grids should be bolstered using ±1100 kV UHV DC, multi-circuit ±800 kV

UHV DC and ±660 kV DC grids, permitting direct transmission of supplies from large-scale

clean energy plants to major load centers. By 2050, most countries and regions, other than

island nations, should be interconnected.

Intercontinental interconnection. Grid interconnection of Europe and West Asia should be

strengthened, focusing on the construction of seven DC transmission projects linking Africa

and Europe, for example linking Morocco to Portugal, Algeria to France, Tunisia to Italy, and

Egypt to Greece and Italy, and three DC transmission projects designed to achieve power

complementarity between Africa and West Asia, such as those linking Egypt and Saudi Arabia,

and Ethiopia and Saudi Arabia.

Power flow scale. Intercontinental and cross-regional power flows should reach 67 GW and

141 GW, respectively, by 2035 and 2050.

4 North America

(1) Energy development

Clean energy sources, such as solar and wind power, should be vigorously developed, with the

aim of improving the shares of clean energy in primary energy consumption to 47% and 82%,

and increasing installed clean energy capacity to 3.3 TW and 6.4 TW, accounting for over 86%

and 96%, respectively, of the total, by 2035 and 2050.

145

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

PV power plant development. The construction of 10 large-scale PV plants in the southwestern

United States and Mexico (Table 6.6) should be accelerated. With total installed capacity of

around 110 GW, and annual power output of 200 TWh, for a total investment of around 57.5

billion U.S. dollars, these would offer an LCOE of 2.0-2.9 U.S. cents/kWh.

Table 6.6 Information on Large-scale PV Power Plants in North America

Annual

Land

area

average Installed

radiation capacity

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

power

output

(GWh)

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Plant name

Country

(km²)

intensity

(MW)

(kWh/m²)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Midland

Buffalo

USA

231

1176

1000

112

96

2026

1828

1821

2046

1985

2198

2194

2147

2209

10000

40000

20100

5000

4100

6000

6100

4000

19220

71086

36199

9946

5096

21360

10574

3034

2112

3100

3632

1985

2197

2.15

2.44

2.37

2.47

2.19

1.99

2.33

2.09

2.16

Syracuse

Roseville

Bluff

USA

7812

Helendale

Lucerne valley

Apatzingan

Rio Grande

USA

225

189

77

12611

12651

7696

USA

Mexico

94

8238

Libertad

Harbor

10

Mexico

179

2223

6000

12216

4406

2.93

Wind power plant development. The construction of 12 large wind power plants in the central

United States, the coastal areas of the northeastern and northwestern United States, and

eastern Canada (Table 6.7), should be accelerated. With a total installed capacity of 140 GW

and an annual power output of 50 GWh, for a total investment of around 178 billion U.S. dollars,

these would offer an LCOE of 3.1-4.8 U.S. cents/kWh for onshore wind power plants, and

5.3-6.9 U.S. cents/kWh for offshore wind power plants.

Table 6.7 Information on Large-scale Wind Power plants in North America

Annual

Land

area

average

wind

Installed

capacity

(MW)

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

power

output

(GWh)

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Plant name

Country

(km²)

speed

(m/s)

1

2

3

4

5

Martin

Arthur

USA

6485

7585

8483

1496

3582

7.26

7.37

7.22

6.42

7.21

18000

4000

55867

56751

54544

10193

27668

18120

18329

16568

3769

3.31

3.3

Garden City

Flagstaff

Tahoka

3.1

3.78

3.03

9000

8214

146

6

Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

continued

Annual

Land

area

average

wind

Installed

capacity

(MW)

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

power

output

(GWh)

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Plant name

Country

(km²)

speed

(m/s)

6

7

8

9

Kjano

Nitchequon

Manicouagan

Oregon

Canada

USA

5183

7410

4869

1003

7.27

7.57

7.4

10000

8000

5000

31561

26236

25856

17570

12155

12410

10856

8818

3.93

4.84

4.29

6.88

8.05

Massachusetts,

Rhode

10

USA

2002

9.09

10000

42373

16336

5.29

Island,Connecticut

11

12

New York State

New Jersey

USA

3007

3002

8.83

8.62

15000

61335

58960

26686

25245

5.97

5.87

(2) Energy interconnection

Intracontinental Interconnection. The construction of three synchronous power grids,

namely the Eastern and Western power grids in North America and the Quebec Power Grid,

should be accelerated. For the North American Eastern Power Grid, the 765 kV main Great

Lakes grid should be strengthened, and a 1000 kV backbone power grid, covering load

centers in the East Coast and Southeast areas, constructed, and synchronously

interconnected with the Texas power grid via 500 kV AC links. For the North American

Western Power Grid, a 1000 kV AC transmission channel along the west coast should be

constructed, to transmit wind and hydropower from the North to load centers in the South,

and should be further interconnected with Mexico’s 1000 kV AC power grid. For the

Quebec Power Grid, asynchronous interconnection with eastern North America should be

maintained, with a strengthen UHV transmission channel for outbound delivery of

hydropower and wind power from Quebec enhancing the capacity for power delivery to

eastern North America.

Intercontinental interconnection. A Mexico-Peru ±800 kV DC transmission channel should be

constructed, achieving power complementarity with South America.

Power flow scale. by 2035, transnational and cross-regional power flows would reach around 100

GW, of which transnational power flows would account for 29 GW. By 2050, transcontinental,

transnational and cross-regional power flows would reach 200 GW, of which transnational and

transcontinental power flows would account for 66 GW and 10 GW, respectively.

5 Central and South America

(1) Energy development

Clean energy such as solar, wind, and hydro power should be vigorously developed, aiming to

147

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

improve their aggregate share in total energy consumption to 49% and 82%, and to increase

clean energy installed capacity to 700 GW and 1.7 TW, accounting for 72% and 91% of the

total, by 2035 and 2050, respectively.

PV power plant development. The construction of 15 large-scale PV plants in the Atacama

Desert and surrounding areas in southwestern Central and South America, northeastern South

America and some inland areas in northwestern America (Table 6.8), should be accelerated.

These would have total installed capacity of around 90 GW and annual power output of 200

TWh, for a total investment of around 42 billion U.S. dollars, and offer an LCOE of 1.7-2.3 U.S.

cents/kWh.

Table 6.8 Information on Large-scale PV plants in Central and South America

Annual

Land

area

average Installed

radiation capacity

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

power

output

(GWh)

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Plant name

Country

(km²)

intensity

(MW)

(kWh/m²)

1

2

Albonsong

El Calvario

Angicos

Venezuela

Brazil

62

60

2075

2069

2093

2107

2208

2407

2400

2611

2415

2420

2562

2538

2564

2608

2231

5000

10000

4000

5000

4000

4950

5000

6000

6100

6000

700

8732

8721

2408

2431

4710

4741

4689

1872

2338

2115

2486

2495

2828

2912

2896

2813

336

2.24

2.26

2.18

2.07

1.76

1.69

1.76

1.77

1.79

1.68

1.72

1.7

3

183

186

191

46

17501

17661

18390

8616

4

Afonso Bezerra

-Augustine-Seved

Atacama

Brazil

5

Brazil

6

Peru

7

Atacama

Bolivia

70

11228

9777

8

El Moreno

Payogasta

Kachi

Argentina

Chile

56

9

115

86

11399

11294

13662

13752

13863

13871

1377

10

11

12

13

14

15

Vala

71

Lagunas

Chile

75

Quillagua

Maria Elena

Santa Ana

Chile

74

Chile

72

1.65

1.98

El Salvador

11

Wind power plant development. The construction of 9 large-scale wind power plants in

southern Argentina, northeastern Brazil, and Colombia near the Caribbean (Table 6.9) should

be accelerated. With total installed capacity of 100 GW and annual power output of 400 TWh,

for a total investment of around 88.6 U.S. billion dollars, these would offer an LCOE of 1.8-3.5

U.S. cents/kWh.

148

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Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

Table 6.9 Information on Large-scale Wind Power plants in Central and South America

Annual

average

wind speed

(m/s)

Annual

power

output

(GWh)

Land

area

Installed

capacity

(MW)

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Plant name

Country

(km²)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Valledupar

Bahia, Brazil

Paraiba, Brazil

Curuguaty

Tacuarembo

Negro River

Chubut

Colombia

Brazil

2558

6140

7184

1019

638

6.89

7.04

7.29

6.25

6.46

8.93

10.58

7.68

10000

20000

4000

31981

59182

62216

10715

5663

8623

17768

17337

3641

1703

16180

13974

8739

610

2.75

3.07

2.85

3.47

3.07

2.35

1.96

1.82

2.56

Brazil

Paraguay

Uruguay

Argentina

Nicaragua

2000

6170

8010

3857

456

18000

15000

10000

700

70188

72899

49142

2440

Santa Cruz

Boaco

Hydropower plant development. Development of 14 hydropower plants in the Orinoco and

Tocantins river basins, with a total installed capacity of approximately 60 GW and an annual

power output of 300 TWh, should be prioritized.

(2) Energy interconnection

Intracontinental interconnection. Three synchronous power grids in eastern and western South

America, southern South America, and Central America should be constructed, and

inter-island AC or DC interconnections in the Caribbean put into place. The three synchronous

power grids should be upgraded to EHV or UHV AC/DC hybrid power standards, with 500/400

kV AC transnational interconnection inside all relevant nations. Asynchronous interconnection

should be strengthened using multi-circuit ±800 kV UHV DC and ±500 kV DC links between

synchronous power grids, so as to connect large-scale clean energy plants in Central and

South America to the relevant load centers. By 2050, most Caribbean nations and regions

should have implemented grid interconnection, and also interconnected with North American

power grids via the Bahamas-Florida cross-sea interconnection project.

Intercontinental interconnection. Interconnection with the North American power grids should

be achieved using ±800 kV UHV DC channels, creating complementarity between North and

South America, and thus further expanding the scope of clean power complementarity.

Power flow scale. Total transcontinental and cross-regional power flows would reach 36 GW

and 91 GW, respectively, by 2035 and 2050.

6 Oceania

(1) Energy development

The development of clean energy such as solar, wind, and hydro power, and the development

149

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

of distributed PV and other clean energy on island nations such as Tuvalu and Nauru, should

be vigorously promoted, with the aim of increasing the shares of clean energy in primary

energy consumption to 48% and 88%, and increasing installed capacity to 300 GW and 700

GW, accounting for over 90% and 99% of the total, respectively, by 2035 and 2050.

PV plant development: the construction of 5 large-scale PV power generation plants in the

northern, central and western regions of Australia (Table 6.10) should be accelerated. With

total installed capacity of around 20 GW, and annual power output of 38.5 TWh, for a total

investment of around 9.7 billion U.S. dollars, these would offer LCOE of 1.9-2.3 U.S. cents/kWh.

Table 6.10 Information on Large-scale PV Plants in Oceania

Annual

Land

area

average Installed

radiation capacity

Total

investment

(M$)

Order

number

power

output

(GWh)

LCOE

(cents/kWh)

Plant name

Country

(km²)

intensity

(MW)

(kWh/m²)

Northern

Territory

1

2

3

4

5

Australia

26

54

2224

2096

2011

2101

2138

2000

4000

6000

3859

7598

7432

7787

11784

918

1.93

1.98

2.28

2.17

1.92

Northern

Queensland

1857

2086

2085

2791

Southern

Queensland

69

Southern

Australia

76

Western

Australia

109

Wind power plant development. The construction of 5 large-scale wind power plants in

southwestern Australia and in the south of New Zealand’s South Island (Table 6.11) should be

accelerated. With total installed capacity of 14.2 GW and annual power output of 48.5 TWh, for

a total investment of approximately 15.9 billion U.S. dollars, these would offer LCOE of 2.9-5.6

U.S. cents/kWh.

Table 6.11 Information on Large-scale Wind Power plants in Oceania

Annual

average Installed

wind

speed

(m/s)

Annual

power

output

(GWh)

Total

invest

ment (cents/kWh)

(M$)

Land

area

Order

number

LCOE

Plant name

Country

capacity

(MW)

(km²)

Western

Australia

1

2

Australia

1017

1924

7.39

7.21

4000

6000

13174

18673

4116

5931

3.19

3.24

New South

Wales

3

4

5

Tasmania

Otago

Australia

600

509

430

8.81

7.73

7.96

3000

600

12577

2002

2046

4650

574

5.61

2.93

New Zealand

Wellington

600

588

150

6

Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

Hydropower plant development. The development of 3 hydropower plants in the Purari, Fly and

Clutha river basins should be prioritized. These would have total installed capacity of

approximately 24 GW and annual power output of 110 TWh.

(2) Energy interconnection

Intracontinental interconnection. The construction of five synchronous power grids in eastern

and western Australia, northern and southern New Zealand, and on the main island of Papua

New Guinea, should be accelerated. 500 kV AC main grids should be built in the states of

Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia in eastern Australia, while the

330/275 kV power grid in Western Australia should be upgraded to 500 kV to meet the needs of

a developing manufacturing industry. Based on New Zealand’s North Island’s existing 400 kV

power grid, a 400 kV main grid covering the nation’s northern region should be constructed,

while the South Island’s existing 220 kV power grid is upgraded to 400 kV to support

larger-scale integration and outbound transmission of hydropower. A 400 kV AC main grid

should be built in Papua New Guinea, while local transmission and distribution networks and

microgrids in Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and other island nations should be

strengthened, increasing their systems’ power penetration and power supply capacity, and

promoting distributed clean energy consumption.

Intercontinental interconnection. An ±800 kV DC transmission project for solar energy plants in

Australia’s Northern Territory should be constructed to deliver electricity to the load center in

Indonesia.

Power flow scale. Total transnational and transcontinental power flow would be 1 GW and 10

GW, by 2035 and 2050, respectively.

6.1.2 Accelerate Emissions Reduction during Energy Consumption

The replacement of coal, oil, and gas with electricity should be vigorously implemented,

making electricity the dominant source in final energy consumption. The construction of grid

infrastructure such as smart grids, ensuring reliable power supplies, should be accelerated,

such that electricity accounts for 33% and 62% of final energy consumption, respectively, by

2035 and 2050. Through electricity replacement, by the end of this century, a cumulative 1.1

trillion ton reduction in CO₂emissions could be achieved.

1 Asia

Energy consumption. The replacement of coal, oil and gas with electricity, and the

popularization of electric vehicles, should be accelerated, and the use of electric industrial

boilers and furnaces should be vigorously promoted, in order to increasing electricity share in

Asia’s final energy consumption. By 2030, electricity should surpass oil to become the major

source in final energy consumption. By 2050, the proportion of electricity in final energy

consumption should increase from 22% currently, to 51%, as shown in Figure 6.2.

151

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

Figure 6.2 End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, Asia

Power grids. The application of technology such as energy storage, flexible power

transmission, and smart power consumption should be vigorously promoted, and the

installation of smart meters accelerated to achieve full smart meter coverage in Asia by 2050,

promoting two-way intelligent power service interactivity. The informatization, automation and

intelligence of the grid systems in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and other regions

should be improved, actively adopting advanced intelligent monitoring equipment, enhancing

these grids’ online monitoring capability and optimization management capability to suit new

energy power generation systems. By 2050, Asia’s requirements for safe, stable operation

would be met, with 19.5 TW of installed clean energy capacity.

2 Europe

Energy consumption. The replacement of gas and oil with electricity should be vigorously

promoted, the popularization of electric transportation, industrial usage of electric boilers,

furnaces, etc. accelerated, and the development of rooftop PV power generation, energy

storage and electrified smart homes promoted, increasing the proportion of electricity in

European final energy consumption, such that electricity becomes the major source in end-use

by 2030. From 2018 to 2050, the proportion of electricity in final energy consumption in Europe

would increase from 22% to 52%, as shown in Figure 6.3.

Power grids. The development of energy storage, virtual power plants, V2G and other

technology, should be accelerated, reducing the volatility of large-scale clean energy power

generation when integrated into grids, and thereby improving the intelligence and safety of grid

operation. AI power prediction capabilities for offshore wind power generation systems should

be improved to accuracies of over 95%. Applications such as smart homes, smart travel, and

smart meters should be popularized, and 100% coverage of smart meters in Europe should be

achieved by 2050, improving power grids’ ability to receive electricity generated from clean

energy. By 2050, Europe’s requirements for safe, stable operation would be met, with installed

clean energy capacity of 4.6 TW.

152

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Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

Figure 6.3 End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, Europe

3 Africa

Energy consumption. The power penetration and end-use efficiency rates in Africa should be

vigorously increased, focusing on improving the low energy utilization and insufficient power

penetration of African commercial energy suppliers, and accelerating end-use electricity

replacement. Before 2045, electricity should surpass biomass and oil to take the largest share

in Africa’s final energy consumption. From 2018 to 2050, the share of electricity in final energy

consumption would increase from 10% to 41%. Proportions of end-use energy by type, and

demand for electricity in Africa is shown in Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4 End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, Africa

153

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

Power grids. The construction of distribution networks in underdeveloped African countries and

regions should be accelerated, greatly improving distribution network coverage and power

supply reliability. These distribution networks’ structure and operation should be optimized,

reducing their losses to less than 10% by 2050. Smart meters should be promoted and applied at

an accelerated pace, raising their penetration rate in Africa to over 70% by 2050. The automation

of power grids should be improved, in order to optimize the integration and efficient consumption

of centrally generated clean electricity in various regions. By 2050, Africa’s requirements for safe,

stable operation would be met, with an installed clean energy capacity of 2.0 TW.

4 North America

Energy consumption. The replacement of oil and gas with electricity should be vigorously

implemented, with total energy consumption capped. The application of industrial electric

boilers and electric furnaces should be promoted, and the popularization of electric

transportation, electric heating, electric refrigeration, etc., accelerated, increasing the

electricity share in North American final energy consumption. By around 2035, electricity

should surpass oil to account for the largest share of final energy consumption in North

America. By 2050, the proportion of electricity in final consumption should increase from 21%

currently, to 56%, as shown in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5 End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, North America

Power grids. The upgrading and transformation of old power grid infrastructure should be

accelerated, and the pace of interconnection of power grids across North America increased,

improving the resilience of the power grid to disaster. The application of computing and

communications technology in these power grids should be further increased, and the

development of distributed energy storage technology for electric vehicles promoted. The

intelligence and automation of distribution networks should be enhanced, and the adaptability

and level of clean energy consumption of the power system improved. The collaborative

management of a centralized-yet-distributed clean energy system should be strengthened,

and a stable, safe, cost-effective, and environmentally-friendly smart grid system established.

By 2050, North America’s requirements for safe, stable operation would be met, with an

installed clean energy capacity of 6.4TW.

154

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Plan and Roadmap for Promoting Biodiversity Conservation Based on GEI

5 Central and South America

Energy consumption. The use of high-efficiency electromechanical equipment, electric

boilers, and electric kiln technology in various industrial chains, including mining,

metallurgy, and manufacturing, should be promoted, alongside the steady development of

electric vehicles. Usage of electric household appliances such as cookers, water heaters,

and heating, should be vigorously popularized, replacing gas and firewood with electricity,

increasing electricity’s share of end-use energy consumption. Electricity should surpass oil

and natural gas to become the largest source in final consumption by 2035. From 2018 to

2050, the proportion of electricity in final consumption should increase from 20% to 59%, as

shown in Figure 6.6.

Figure 6.6 End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, Central and South America

Power grids. Large-capacity energy storage technology should be popularized, with a

particular emphasis on pumped storage and battery energy storage, and grid regulation

capabilities should be improved. The application of smart meters should be promoted,

increasing their penetration rate in Central and South America to over 90% by 2050. The

widespread application of modern information technology and automatic control

technology in power grids should be accelerated, improving their intelligence and capacity

to consume clean energy, and optimizing the integration and efficient distributed

consumption of centralized power sources. By 2050, Central and South America’s

requirements for safe, stable operation would be met, with installed clean energy capacity

of 1.7 TW.

155

Biodiversity and Revolution of Energy and Electric Power

6 Oceania

Energy consumption. The replacement of oil and gas with electricity should be accelerated,

and the production of hydrogen using electricity (electrohydrogen) promoted in order to

modify the structure of end-use energy consumption. The popularization and application of

electric transportation, industrial electric boilers and electric furnace technology should be

accelerated, and electrified rail transit transformed and upgraded, increasing the electricity

share final energy consumption, such that electricity becomes the largest source in

Oceania’s final energy consumption by 2040. From 2018 to 2050, the proportion of

electricity in final energy consumption should increase from 22% to 42%, as shown in

Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7 End-use Energy Demand and Electricity Share, Oceania

Power grids. The upgrade and transformation of power grid infrastructure should be

accelerated, and the resilience of the power grid to climate change induced extreme weather

conditions should be improved. The development and application of technologies such as

electrohydrogen production and energy storage should be promoted, enhancing the grids’

regulation capabilities. The intelligence of power grids’ operation, control and dispatch should

be improved, to ensure the safe, reliable integration of a high proportion of clean energy. By

2050, Oceania’s requirements for safe, stable operation should be met, with an installed clean

energy capacity of 700 GW.

6.1.3 Actively Implement Negative Emissions Measures

The development, pilot use and application of carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS)

projects should be actively promoted, with a focus on global scale capture, utilization and

storage of CO₂produced by activities such as cement and steel production, fossil fuel

combustion, waste incineration and power generation. By 2050, CO₂emissions should be

reduced by 10 billion tons per year through CCUS; by the end of this century, cumulative CO₂

emissions should be reduced by 0.5 trillion tons.

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Column 6-1

Prospects for the Development of

Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage

As of end-2020, 65 large-scale CCUS projects were underway worldwide, of which 28

were in operation, with annual emission reduction capacity reaching 40 million tons/year,

while 37 were under construction or in development. Figure 1 provides summary

information on 15 large-scale CCUS projects in operation and under construction. It can

be seen that the existing large-scale CCUS projects are mainly located in Europe and

North America.

Figure 1 Emission reduction capabilities of various global CCUS facilities

The IEA predicts that in 2050, CCUS technology will contribute over 10% to global

emission reductions, and that, unless CCUS technology is adopted, the Paris Agreement’s

emission reduction and temperature increase control targets will be difficult to achieve.

6.2 Plans for Promotion of Environmental Governance Based on GEI

Alongside GEI construction, efforts should be made to ensure that earlier peaking of demand

for coal, oil, natural gas and other fossil fuels, and to reduce these peak demands for fossil

fuels, accelerating their phasing out. An electricity-oriented green energy use pattern should

be promoted, and the development of green transportation, green industry, green lifestyles and

green hydrogen energy should be facilitated. The integrated development of clean energy and

pollutant treatment should be accelerated, reducing the discharge of water, gas, and solid

pollutants, benefiting the ecological environment.

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6.2.1 Accelerating the Phasing out of Fossil Fuels

Efforts should be made to ensure that global demand for coal peaks by 2021 at 5.4 Gtce, and

that this is reduced to 6.8 Gtce, or 2% of total global primary energy demand, by 2050. Global

demand for oil should peak by 2025 at 7.0 Gtce, and be reduced to 2.05 Gtce, or 7% of total

global primary energy demand, by 2050. Global demand for natural gas should peak by 2035

at 5.5 Gtce, and be reduced to 2.13 Gtce, or 7% of total global primary energy demand, by

2050. The proportion of fossil fuels in primary energy demand should drop from 76% in 2016 to

less than 30% in 2050.

1 Asia

The phasing out of fossil fuels in Asia should be accelerated, with demand for coal peaking by

2025 and for oil and natural gas by 2035. Peak coal demand should be limited to around 4.2

Gtce, and after 2025 coal demand should be rapidly reduced, to 0.6 Gtce by 2050, 87% below

its peak level. Peak demand for oil and natural gas should be limited to around at 4.0 Gtce and

3.1 Gtce respectively, and reduced to 1.3 Gtce and 1.2 Gtce, by 2050 respectively. By 2050,

the proportions of coal, oil, and natural gas in primary energy demand in Asia should be

reduced to 3.4%, 8.7%, and 7.6%, respectively (Figure 6.8), and the proportion of fossil fuels in

primary energy consumption should be cut to 20%. This would result in annual reductions of

30.8 million tons of sulfur dioxide emissions, 27.5 million tons of emissions of nitrogen oxides,

and 6.5 million tons of fine particulate matter emissions.

Figure 6.8 Primary Energy Projections by Type, plus Demand, Asia

2 Europe

The phasing out of fossil fuels in Europe should be accelerated, with demand for natural gas

peaking by 2025, and oil and coal demand should rapidly decline. Between 2018 and 2050,

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European fossil fuel demand should drop from 2.95 Gtce to 370 Mtce, with coal, oil, and natural

gas demand dropping by 100%, 90%, and 80%, respectively, and the proportion of fossil fuels

in primary energy consumption in Europe falling to around10% (Figure 6.9). This would result in

annual reductions of 6.8 million tons of sulfur dioxide emissions, 15.5 million tons of emissions

of nitrogen oxides, and 1.5 million tons of fine particulate matter emissions.

Figure 6.9 Primary Energy Projections, by Type, plus Demand, Europe

3 Africa

The phasing out of fossil fuels in Africa should be accelerated, with demand for coal peaking

by 2030, and limited to around 170 Mtce, and with peak demand for oil and natural gas also

limited to 550 Mtce and 400 Mtce, respectively. By 2050, the proportion of fossil fuels in primary

energy consumption in Africa should be reduced to around 30% (Figure 6.10). This would

result in annual reductions of 3 million tons of sulfur dioxide emissions and 700000 tons of fine

particulate matter emissions.

4 North America

The phasing out of fossil fuels in North America should be accelerated, with demand for natural

gas peaking by 2025, and steady reductions in oil and coal demand. From 2018 to 2050, North

American coal demand will drop from 530 Mtce to zero, phasing out coal completely in the

North American market. While oil and natural gas demand will drop from 1.43 Gtce and 1.14

Gtce to 140 Mtce and 300 Mtce, a decline of 90% and 74%, respectively. By 2050, the

proportion of fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in North America should be reduced to

around 10% (Figure 6.11). This would result in annual reductions of 7 million tons of sulfur

dioxide emissions, 19 million tons of emissions of nitrogen oxides and 1.7 million tons of fine

particulate matter emissions.

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Figure 6.10 Primary Energy Projections by Type, plus Demand, Africa

Figure 6.11 Primary Energy Projections by Type, plus Demand, North America

5 Central and South America

The phasing out of fossil fuels in Central and South America should be accelerated, with

demand for coal and oil peaking before 2030, at 60 Mtce and 540 Mtce respectively. Central

and South American demand for natural gas should be limited to 250 million tons. By 2050, the

proportion of fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in Central and South America should

be reduced to less than 10% (Figure 6.12). This would result in annual reductions of 3.1 million

tons of sulfur dioxide emissions, 6.5 million tons of emissions of nitrogen oxides, and 700000

tons of fine particulate matter emissions.

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Figure 6.12 Primary Energy Projections by Type, plus Demand, Central and South America

6 Oceania

The phasing out of fossil fuels in Oceania should be accelerated, with demand for oil peaking

by 2025, and demand for natural gas and coal steadily declining. Between 2018 and 2050 the

demand for coal in Oceania should drop from 64 Mtce to 5 Mtce, a 90% decline. Oil demand

should peak at around 70 Mtce in 2025, thereafter rapidly falling to 2 Mtce in 2050, a 70%

reduction. Natural gas demand should steadily decline to 10 Mtce in 2050, a 80% reduction. By

2050, the proportion of fossil fuels in Oceania’s primary energy consumption should be

reduced to 10% (Figure 6.13). This would result in annual reductions of 800000 tons of sulfur

dioxide of emissions, 3.1 million tons of emissions of nitrogen oxides, and 330000 tons of fine

particulate matter emissions.

Figure 6.13 Primary Energy Projections by Type, plus Demand, Oceania

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Column 6-2

Timetable for Coal Power and Fossil

Fuel Vehicle Phase Out

At present, countries worldwide have initiated plans for phasing out coal power, and

its share in global energy production is continuing to decline. Since 2014, 30

countries and regions worldwide have issued coal phaseout policies (Table 1).

France plans to shut down all coal-fired power plants by 2023. The UK has decided

to close all coal-fired power facilities by 2025, while the Netherlands, Finland and

Canada will ban the use of coal for power generation from 2030. Germany, with 35%

of its energy coming from coal power, plans to close all of its coal-fired power plants

by 2038 at the latest. Although the United States announced its withdrawal from the

Paris Agreement, its coal-fired power generating capacity has fallen sharply over the

past ten years, and, in 2019, reached the lowest level recorded in the past 42 years.

China and India have also vigorously optimized the structure of their coal-based

energy production, increasing investment in renewable energy, and slowing growth

in coal power production. In terms of power generation costs, coal power’s cost

advantage is rapidly disappearing. It is estimated that by 2022, 60% of the world’s

coal-fired power plants will no longer be economically competitive compared with

renewable energy; a Figure expected to rise to 73% by 2025, and to reach 100% in

Europe by that date. Taken together, price competition and pressure for emission

reductions imply that the trend towards phasing out of coal power is inevitable, and

only likely to increase in pace.

Table 1 Deadlines for Phasing Out Coal-fired Power

Generation by Country/Region

New

Zealand

Country

Year

Belgium

2016

Spain

2020

France

2023

Italy

Austria

2020

2022

2025

The

Netherlands

Country

The UK

Ireland

Israel

Greece

Finland

2030

Year

Country

Year

2025

Sweden

2020

2025

Portugal

2030

2025

Denmark

2030

2028

Hungary

2030

Switzerland Luxembourg

2030

Mexico

2030

Germany

2038

Country

Year

Angola

2030

Ethiopia

2030

Costa Rica

2030

Chile

2030

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As of end-2020, over 20 countries and regions worldwide had announced timetables for

banning the sale of fossil fuel vehicles, as shown in Table 2. In 2019 China’s Ministry of

Industry and Information Technology proposed supporting pilot projects, including the

replacement of buses and taxis with electric vehicles, and establishment of zones

prohibiting fossil fuel vehicles, in suitable places and areas. Based on the success of

these, further coordinated research will be conducted to formulate a timetable for

phasing out fossil fuel vehicles. Given the rapid development of electric vehicles in

China, the thi is sure to be a major trend.

Table 2 Deadlines for Banning Fossil Fuel Vehicle Sales by Country/Region

Country/

Region

Madrid,

Spain

Greece

Athens

Rome, Italy France Paris

Mexico

2025

Norway

2025

Year

2024

China Hainan

2030

2025

Germany

2030

2025

India

Country/

Region

The

Netherlands

Israel

Ireland

2030

Year

2030

Denmark

2030

Country/

Region

Japan Tokyo

2030

Iceland

2030

Slovenia

2030

Sweden

2030

The UK

2030

Year

British

Columbia,

Canada

Country/

Region

Quebec,

Canada

Scotland

2032

Japan

2035

France

2040

Spain

2040

Year

2035

2040

6.2.2 Advocate Green Energy Use

Development of transport electrification should be promoted, the share of electricity in

industrial sector and household electricity consumption should be increased, and the status of

fossil fuels as raw materials should be gradually restored, thereby limiting pollutant emissions

from various types of end-use, creating a more livable ecology, much more efficient production

and better lifestyles through clean electricity and green hydrogen.

1 Accelerating development of green transportation

Transport electrification should be vigorously promoted, and the development of electric

vehicles, electrified railways, and shore power in ports accelerated, limiting the emission of air

pollutants in the transportation sector, and resolving environmental problems such as haze and

acid rain. By 2050, the electrification rate in the transportation sector should exceed 60%.

The development of EVs and the construction of supporting facilities should be accelerated.

Electric automobiles, motorcycles, bicycles and other electrified transportation tools should be

popularized, and electric vehicle charging (battery swapping) facility construction integrated

into urban and regional planning. Social resources should be guided and integrated, and

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industrial agglomeration, technology integration, and resource agglomeration should be

encouraged. Fiscal and tax policies to encourage the development of electric vehicles should

be formulated. Through construction of GEI, the electric vehicle penetration rate should

increase to 85% by 2050.

The electrification rate of railways should be increased. The construction and transformation of

high-speed electrified railways should be accelerated, and operation of diesel-driven

heavy-duty transportation vehicles reduced, reducing transportation industry air pollutant

emissions. The construction of urban rail transit systems such as subways and light railways

should be accelerated, alleviating road congestion in cities, and reducing air pollution in

densely populated urban areas.

The construction of shore power in ports should be actively promoted. Policies supporting

shore power in various countries’ ports should be introduced, and great improvements made in

shore power technology, equipment, and standards. Demonstration projects where

shore-based power sources directly supply power for ships should be established and their

implementation promoted step by step, reducing emissions pollution from ships at port, and

reducing ports’ pollution-related problems.

2 Accelerate the promotion of green industrial production

Green power replacement in the industrial sector should be accelerated, and electrified

production technology promoted, increasing the electricity share in major industrial sectors’

final power consumption. By 2050, the electrification rate in industry should exceed 50%.

Differentiate electrification promotion by industrial sector. For high energy consumption, high

emissions industries such as cement and steel, emphasis should be placed on promotion of

technologies and equipment such as electric furnaces for steelmaking, and electric rotary kilns

for cement. For industries whose production processes require hot water or steam,

regenerative and direct heating industrial electric boilers should gradually be popularized,

replacing coal-fired boilers. The promotion and usage of electric furnaces in metal processing,

casting, ceramics, rock wool, glass-ceramics and other industries should be accelerated.

Overall planning and formulation of supporting policies should be strengthened. The

formulation of industrial electrification development plans should be coordinated clarifying

development goals, paths and priorities, and industrial enterprises’ enthusiasm for and

motivation towards electricity replacement should be enhanced via the establishment of pilot

demonstration projects. Mechanisms for the use of subsidies should be optimized, and

eligible electricity replacement projects and technological R&D relevant to industrial sectors

supported via incentives, financial subsidies, and pricing mechanisms.

3 Accelerate promotion of green lifestyles

The replacement of coal and gas with electricity for household heating should be actively

promoted, and household green energy use encouraged, reducing air pollution and improving

living environments and quality of life. By 2050, the household electrification rate should

increase to over 70%.

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Increase electrification promotion efforts. Use of electric heating and refrigeration equipment,

including electric rice cookers, induction cookers, heating films and heat pumps should be

vigorously promoted, given their advantages of zero emissions, zero pollution, high-energy

efficiency, and high-intelligence, and social awareness and acceptance of these products

should be raised.

Strengthen policy support. In countries and regions with weak power infrastructure, governments

should increase the usage of household electrical appliances as a key measure supporting modern

energy services. Through introduction of supportive subsidy policies, the household purchase cost

threshold can be lowered, increasing the penetration of household electrical appliances.

Increase technological research and development efforts. The development and application of

technology such as smart homes, smart buildings, energy storage, and the Internet of Things

should be accelerated to further improve the energy efficiency of electrical equipment and

increase these products’ market competitiveness.

4 Accelerate the development of green hydrogen energy

The energy conversion efficiency of hydrogen production using electricity, and of hydrogen

power generation should be vigorously improved, and policies supporting green hydrogen

energy industry development introduced, while the construction of hydrogen energy

infrastructure such as hydrogen refueling stations and facilities supporting the hydrogen

energy industry is accelerated. Reducing the cost of green hydrogen energy will permit the

widespread utilization of green hydrogen energy between 2040 and 2050.

Strengthen policy support for hydrogen energy development. Green hydrogen energy

development should be incorporated into national industrial and energy policy planning.

Facilities supporting the hydrogen energy industry should be improved, and the green

hydrogen production industry developed using renewable electricity in accordance with local

conditions, while encouraging and supporting the application of green hydrogen energy in

energy-intensive industries such as the steel, chemical engineering and cement industries.

Improve whole-process hydrogen energy efficiency. At the production stage, efficient,

economical and clean methods improving the energy conversion efficiency of hydrogen

production via electrolysis of water should be developed. At the transportation stage, the

development of compressed hydrogen, liquid hydrogen and solid (metal hydride form)

hydrogen storage technology should be promoted, to ensure safe, efficient, economical, and

convenient hydrogen storage. At the utilization stage, innovative development of hydrogen fuel

cell technology should be promoted, improving fuel cell energy conversion efficiency, and

reducing the energy system costs of hydrogen fuel cells.

Explore applications of green hydrogen energy. Innovation and development of green

hydrogen energy in areas such as hydrogen energy vehicles, ships and airplanes, and

steelmaking furnaces should be promoted. Green hydrogen energy should be developed into

an important energy storage measure in energy systems with high clean energy penetration,

and the development of GWh and tens of GWh-scale green hydrogen energy storage projects

should be accelerated.

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Column 6-3

Prospects for Green Hydrogen

Energy Development

Since the 1990s, Japan, the United States, Europe, China and other countries have

formulated strategies and policies supporting the development of hydrogen energy.

(1) Japan listed fuel cells as an emerging strategic industry in 2004, and released the

White Paper on Hydrogen Energy and Roadmap for Strategic Development of Hydrogen

Energy in 2014, which included goals for 2040, such as the installation of 5.3 million

hydrogen fuel cell combined heat and power household appliances, and hydrogen

vehicles accounting for 50%-70% of new car sales by that date.

(2) The U.S. Department of Energy issued its Hydrogen Energy Vision in 2001 and

reintroduced the Fuel Cell Investment Tax Credit policy in 2018, with the goal of

achieving the transition to an economic development model replacing fossil fuels with

hydrogen by 2040.

(3) The European Union formulated and issued the Hydrogen Roadmap Europe in 2003,

including a vision and plan for the development of hydrogen energy and hydrogen fuel

cell technology, and aiming to achieve a 35% share of hydrogen vehicles in newly sold

cars by 2040. In July 2020, the European Commission announced a strategic plan for

hydrogen, stating that “the focus is on the development of renewable hydrogen mainly

produced using wind and solar energy.” The goal is to support the installation of at least

6 GW of renewable hydrogen electrolyzer capacity in the EU, and to produce 1 million

tons of renewable hydrogen between 2020 and 2024. Hydrogen energy must become

an integral part of the integrated energy system between 2025 and 2030, with at least

40 GW of renewable hydrogen electrolyzer capacity, and 10 million tons of renewable

hydrogen production capacity, in the EU.

(4) China issued the 863 Program as part of the “Tenth Five-Year Plan” in 2001,

emphasizing the importance of hydrogen fuel cell technology development, and issued

the Energy-saving and New Energy Automobile Industry Development Plan in 2012. In

2018, it announced a financial subsidy program for hydrogen energy vehicles, allocating

up to 1 million yuan per vehicle, and aiming to realize the commercial application of one

million hydrogen vehicles, and the construction of 1000 hydrogen refueling stations, by

2030. The recently released Fourteenth Five-Year Plan and Vision 2035 make proposals

for organizing the implementation of future industry incubation and acceleration plans for

frontier technology and industrial transformation fields such as hydrogen energy and

energy storage, and include plans for the rollout of a set of promising industries.

(5) The Netherlands issued a national hydrogen energy policy in April 2020, including

plans to build 50 hydrogen refueling stations, and bring 15000 fuel cell vehicles and

3000 heavy-duty vehicles into operation by 2025, along with 300000 fuel cell vehicles by

2030.

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(6) Germany adopted its National Hydrogen Energy Strategy in June 2020, establishing

a framework for action concerning the future production, transportation, and usage of

clean energy, and for related innovation and investment.

(7) Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO)

issued its National Hydrogen Energy Roadmap report in 2018, predicting that the

cost of green hydrogen production in Australia would drop to around 2 USD/kg by

2030. By 2030, it projected that demand for green hydrogen from East Asian

countries, such as China, Japan and South Korea, would exceed 3.8 million tons, and

that green hydrogen exports would create over 10 billion AUD in annual revenues for

Australia.

6.2.3 Promote Clean Treatment of Pollutants

Implement “sewage treatment + PV power generation” as an integrated project. The “sewage

treatment + PV power generation” model, with PV power generation systems installed above

and around sewage treatment plants, in which clean energy is used for sewage treatment, and

PV panels block the sun inhibiting algae growth, reducing sewage treatment costs and

improving sewage treatment efficiency, should be promoted.

Implement waste-to-energy projects. Through high-temperature incineration or biogas power

generation, residential and other waste can be converted into useful resources, or rendered

harmless, reducing landfill waste volume. Such methods, which are energy-saving and prevent

and control pollution, including water and soil damage caused by garbage and other wastes,

should be promoted.

Column 6-4

“Sewage Treatment + PV Power Generation”

Project, Zhengzhou, China

Water pollution treatment plants generally occupy large open areas suitable for installing

PV panels, with abundant sunlight. In Matougang, Zhengzhou, China, Asia’s largest

modern “sewage treatment + PV power generation” plant has been constructed.

Matougang Sewage Treatment Plant covers an area of 70.5 ha, involved total investment

of around 1.6 billion yuan, and has a sewage treatment design capacity of 600000 m³

per day. 150000 square meters of PV panels have been installed in the plant area, with a

total installed capacity of 17000 kW, and annual power output of over 20 GWh, providing

over a quarter of the plant’s annual sewage treatment electricity needs. This eliminates

production of 5000 tons of dust and other fine particle environmental pollutants per year,

reduces the plant’s energy costs, and improves the ecological environment around the

city.

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Figure 1 “Sewage Treatment + PV Power Generation” Project

6.3 Plans for Habitat Protection Based on GEI

In the context of GEI, vertical development of ecological agriculture should be promoted,

greatly increasing food production per unit area, reducing agricultural land use and allowing

farmland to be returned to forest and grassland use. As energy, transportation and information

networks (ETI) integration advances, joint construction of ETI network hubs and shared

channels will permit improved efficiency of land resource utilization, reducing land occupation,

increasing urban green space, and protecting the integrity and connectivity of biological

habitats. The construction of microgrids on island nations will help provide them with

pollution-free, uninterrupted, 100% green energy supply, promoting the protection of island

habitats.

6.3.1 Accelerate the Development of High-Efficiency Ecological Agriculture

High-efficiency ecological agriculture models such as “clean energy + vertical agriculture”

should be promoted to leverage cheap, abundant clean electricity. Base on modern science

and technology, this will promote the recycling and efficient use of water, nitrogen, potassium

and other substances and elements in the agricultural ecosystem, reducing or even eliminating

pesticide and herbicide usage while greatly increasing grain output per unit area, sparing

agricultural land and permitting the return of farmland to forest and grassland usage,

protecting forests, grasslands, wetlands and other biological habitats^A.

__________

AVertical agriculture is a form of controlled environment agriculture (CEA) which produces crops using of

artificial light control, environmental control (humidity, temperature, atmosphere, etc.) and fertilizer irrigation

in fully insulated indoor facilities.

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Column 6-5

New “Clean Energy + Vertical

Agriculture” Model

GEI can facilitate the development of efficient ecological “clean energy + vertical

agriculture” via supplying sufficient, economical and stable green power. This mode of

agriculture achieves light control by using artificial sunlight, and adjusts growth environment

parameters through intelligent temperature and humidity control systems, achieving optimal

crop growth conditions year-round (Figure 1). Vegetable growth taking 30-60 days in fields

can be shortened to 10 days with “clean energy + vertical agriculture”. Compared with

traditional agriculture, this model consumes 95% less water and increases yield per m³by

over 300 times, achieving intensive ecological agricultural production which produces more

food with less land, greatly reducing agricultural land use, and bringing sustainable

agricultural development into line with biological habitat protection.

Figure 1 High-efficiency Ecological Agriculture Park based on Artificial Sunlight

6.3.2 Accelerate Energy, Transportation and Information Networks (ETI) Integration

Energy, transportation, and information networks (ETI networks) are human society’s most

important infrastructure, absorbing over 90% of global infrastructure investment annually. This

infrastructure construction and operation requires considerable land and space, leading to

damage to vegetation, water and soil erosion, channel blockages and other problems, while

also generating large amounts of waste gas, waste water, noise and other pollution, seriously

impacting biodiversity. ETI integration will promote utility tunnels, multi-station integration, PV

highways, shared towers, electric power optical fibers, etc., permitting the co-construction and

sharing of ETI network channels, facilities and terminals, improving resource utilization

efficiency, reducing occupation of land and space, promoting coordinated development of

infrastructure and the ecological environment, minimizing biodiversity loss, and creating an

eco-friendly green infrastructure system.

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Column 6-6

Significance and Value of ETI Integration

Energy, transportation, and information networks (ETI networks) resemble the circulatory,

muscular and nervous systems of the human body, and only via coordination and

cooperation can they operate efficiently (Figure 1). ETI Integration shifts ETI networks

from a mode of separate development to one of integrated, shared and coordinated

development, in which they are deeply coupled in form and function. ETI networks would

thus constitute a new comprehensive infrastructure system that is widely interconnected,

intelligent, efficient, clean, low-carbon, open, and shared, permitting the efficient

coordination of flows of energy, people/logistics, and information, and multiplication of

the value generated. ETI Integration offers a development model with increased

resource distribution, industry-driving, and value creation capability, raising

infrastructure development to a higher level.

ETI networks have a five-layer structure, including energy, infrastructure, data,

application, and paradigm layers (Figure 2). At the energy layer, the coordination of the

energy supply and demand systems, and the optimization of energy structure and

integration, should be promoted, permitting safe and efficient access to clean energy. At

the infrastructure layer, the sharing of utilities, hubs, facilities and terminals, and

infrastructure integration should be promoted, sparing land and space resources, and

increasing returns on investment. At the data layer, the cross-platform sharing of data

and data integration should be promoted in order to yield increased benefits. At the

application layer, the ETI networks’ optimized operation, innovative services and

operational integration should be promoted, improving the efficiency of enterprise

operation and increasing benefits. At the paradigm layer, industry barriers should be

eliminated to achieve cross-sector integration, creating new business models, modes

and industries, and developing an ETI Integration industrial ecosystem.

Figure 1 Analogy: ETI Networks and Three Systems of the Human Body

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Figure 2 ETI Networks’ Five-layer Structure

Energy, facilities, data, paradigms and industries should be hierarchically connected,

promoting the integration of flows of energy, materials, information, and values, and

creating a development pattern featuring collaboration and innovation, opening up

and sharing, and win-win cooperation, in order to maximize ETI networks’ value

(Figure 3).

Figure 3 Value of ETI Integration — “Four Flows into One”

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Column 6-7

ETI Integration Promotes Biological

Habitat Protection

Urban land resource scarcity is an important issue for the development of ETI

integration, and urban land use is also critical for biological habitat protection. The

promotion of utility tunnels, multi-station integration, PV highways, etc. in cities

increases the efficiency of land and space resource usage for ETI networks, reducing

construction, operation and maintenance costs, and minimizing loss of urban

biological habitats. At present, China is advancing the construction of the Xiong’an

New Area, whose urban planning prioritizes ecology and green development, fully

considers resource stage carrying capacity, promoting intensive, efficient, green and

low-carbon infrastructure development, while also promoting habitat protection for

animals and plants, providing these with many forest patches and ecological tunnels

across the city.

(1) Urban integrated utility tunnel construction

Urban integrated utility tunnels place transportation, electricity, communication, water

supply, heating, cooling, gas and other facilities underground in the city in a centralized

fashion, using urban underground space effectively, saving urban land, and avoiding

repeated excavation for underground pipeline laying and maintenance, reducing

ecological degradation and sparing space for urban greening and biological habitats

(Figure 1).

Figure 1 Underground Utility Tunnel

Xiong’an New Area’s utility tunnel can be divided into from top to bottom: rail transit,

pipelines, municipal pipe networks, underground space, and intelligent facilities layers.

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For hub utility tunnel in Xiong’an’s high-speed railway station, for example, has a

maximum excavation depth is 22.5 meters, as high as a 7-story residential building. The

utility tunnel has a three-layer, four-compartment structure, with the uppermost layer

reserved for logistics, and the middle layer for pedestrians and equipment, above four

utility compartments designated for different future urban functional needs: energy,

power, communications and water supply.

(2) Multi-station integration

Substations, electric vehicle charging stations and data centers are ETI networks’

major hubs, and can be planned, constructed, and operated in a unified manner to

save land. Promoting the integration of hub sites with urban greening, and creating

green hub sites, can play an important role in protecting the urban ecological

environment. Jucun Substation, the first hub substation put into operation in Xiong’an

New Area, capable of meeting the electricity consumption needs of 70000 people via

its electricity-centric approach and clean energy supply system. The substation’s

above-ground steel structure incorporates a three-sided slope, with an integral green

park above.

(3) PV highways

Laying PV panels alongside roads and integrating the construction of road corridors and

energy networks can deliver huge benefits (Figure 2). China’s 130000 kilometer plus

highway network could accommodate 640 GW of installed PV power generation capacity,

saving over 4000 square kilometers of land area, efficiently utilising space resources,

and expanding the living space left available to organisms.

Figure 2 PV Highway

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6.3.3 Accelerate Micro-Grid on Islands

Many small island nations such as Tuvalu, Cook, Palau, and Samoa are actively developing

clean energy, including solar, wind, tidal and wave energy, and have constructed safe, reliable,

cost-effective, green and low-carbon micro-grids based on new environmentally friendly

energy storage technology, which provide them with pollution-free, uninterrupted, 100% green

energy supply. These adequate, inexpensive clean energy supply can be used for residential

sewage treatment, seawater desalination, and treatment rendering solid waste harmless,

reducing the pollution and habitat loss caused by the use of fossil fuels such as diesel.

Column 6-8

Island Micro-grids and Island

Habitat Protection

Small island countries and regions often use diesel generators for power supply. Since

most islands do not produce fossil fuels, diesel and gasoline all need to be imported.

This not only increases the cost of energy use for small island countries, but also brings

around a series of problems such as environmental pollution and loss of island habitats.

Moreover, the transportation of energy to small island countries by small and

medium-sized ships is greatly dependent on the weather, so small islands’ energy

supplies are often interrupted, which means that energy security cannot be guaranteed.

The Cook Islands, in the Pacific, for example, completely relied on imported diesel for

power generation before 2012. The cost for diesel power generation in 2012 was 29.8

million U.S. dollars, accounting for more than 25% of the country’s total goods imports.

The average electricity cost was over 0.6 U.S. dollars. Excessively high energy costs

and intermittent power supply have severely restricted the economic and social

development of the Cook Islands, and have also created a series of problems such as

environmental pollution and ecological degradation. Due to the lack of electricity, there

are insufficient modern sanitary sewage and garbage disposal methods. As the living

standards of local residents improve, the ecological environment and biological habitats

are facing more negative impact. In recent years, the Cook Islands has actively

developed island micro-grid projects such as “PV + energy storage”, and the electricity

cost has fallen below 0.5 U.S. dollars, down by over 20%.

Statistics indicate that 39 small island developing countries exist worldwide, mainly

distributed in the Caribbean, the Pacific, Africa, the Indian Ocean, and the

Mediterranean. Their total population exceeds 60 million. Most of these countries rely

heavily on diesel power generation for electricity supply. The imports of diesel and

other fossil fuel account for an average of 10%-20% of the total cargo imports for

small island countries. The development of island micro-grids (Figure 1), ensuring a

green, low-carbon, safe, reliable, economical and efficient supply of energy is of great

significance to the economic and social development of small island countries. These

will promote the treatment of sewage and residential garbage on the islands, reduce the

ecological degradation caused by the use of fossil fuels, and effectively promote the

protection of island habitats.

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Figure 1 Island “Optical Storage” Micro-grid

6.4 Plans for Promoting Sustainable Use of Biological Resources Based

on GEI

GEI will help to accelerate the replacement of firewood with electricity, and encourage the use

of electric refrigeration and the electrosynthesis of raw materials. This will reduce the massive

consumption of forests, animals, plants and other biological resources, thus allowing the needs

of humanity to be met in a more economical, reasonable and efficient way, and permitting the

sustainable use of biological resources.

6.4.1 Replace Firewood with Electricity to Reduce Deforestation

The replacement of primary bioenergy, such as firewood, with clean electricity, should be

accelerated and the application of new technology and equipment, such as electric cookers

and electric heating, promoted to solve problem related to fuel use in remote villages and

underdeveloped areas, and reduce excessive deforestation. It is especially important to

accelerate the replacement of firewood with electricity in sub-Saharan Africa and other regions

heavily reliant on wood for cooking and heating, improving their residents’ energy use structure,

reducing energy costs, protecting forest ecology, and preserving green mountains and clean

water^A.

__________

AIn 2017, around 800 million people in sub-Saharan Africa still depended on wood for cooking and heating,

and an average of 2.8 million hectares of forest were cut down each year, accounting for 2%-7% of total

anthropogenic deforestation.

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Column 6-9 Remarkable Results for “Replacement of Diesel

with Electricity” in China’s Western Fujian Villages

Huaitu and Shibi towns in Ninghua County, Western Fujian, China, are home to

around 16800 rural households, with a total population of approximately 71000. In the

past, local households would go into the mountains to cut an average of 120

shoulder-pole loads of firewood (roughly 4 m³wood) each year. The country people

in the two towns consumed 80000 cubic meters of wood each year, easily enough to

cover a whole hill.

In early 2012, the local government issued Eight Prohibitions on Woodcutting to Facilitate

Afforestation covering Huaitu and Shibi towns, comprehensively promoting “replacement

of firewood with electricity.” Clean electricity was rolled out, and the masses were

mobilized to plant 1333 hectare of ecological forests, tea seed oil forests, and

commercia forests every year. By 2017, the forest coverage rate in this area had risen to

76% from 51% in 2012. Large areas of forest vegetation were protected, and various rare

wild animals returned to their homes. Wild animals such as serows, black bears, zibets,

South China tigers, leopards, silver leopards, and Elliot’s pheasants can now once again

be seen in this mountain forest.

6.4.2 Reduce Food Waste via Electric Refrigeration

Clean power for efficient refrigeration should be vigorously implemented, and the use of food

storage technology, including refrigeration and cold chains, promoted. Low-temperature

packaging, cold chain storage and cold chain transportation should be actively developed,

reducing decay and deterioration due to improper preservation of grain and other foodstuffs

during production, storage, transportation, sales and use, in order to reduce food waste and

excessive food usage.

Column 6-10

Development of Global Cold Chain

Logistics for Fresh Agricultural Products

About one-third of the world’s food is discarded or wasted every year, including 30%

of grain, 40%-50% of root vegetables, 20% of meat, egg and milk products, and

35% of fish, representing a total value of over 1 trillion U.S. dollars. Cold chains for

fresh agricultural products are an effective way to continuously keep foods in low

temperature environments from production to consumption, extending their

preservation time and reducing food losses. However, they impose high

requirements in terms of storage and transportation environments and management

processes.

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As shown in Figure 1, developed countries such as Japan, the United States, Germany,

the United Kingdom and Canada have taken the lead in global cold chain logistics, with

proportions of fresh agricultural products transported via cold chains reaching 80%-90%.

In recent years, China’s cold chain logistics industry has also developed rapidly, and the

Chinese agricultural product cold chain logistics system is continuing to improve. In

2019, cold chain coverage for aquatic products, meat, fruits and vegetables in China

reached 69%, 57%, and 35% respectively, annual saving losses of fruit and vegetables

alone worth over 15 billion U.S. dollars. In future, as people place increasing emphasis

on food quality and safety, the cold chain logistics industry in China will enter a golden

age of development, playing an important role in greatly reducing food wastage and

promoting sustainable usage of biological resources.

Figure 1 Comparison of Cold Chain Coverage, China and Developed Countries

6.4.3 Reduce Consumption of Biological Resources via Electrosynthesis of Raw

Materials

The electrosynthesis of fuels and materials, use of clean electricity to produce hydrogen, the

production of methane, methanol and other fuels via reactions involving CO₂, and synthesis of

organic polymer raw materials, such as ethylene and propylene, should be promoted, in order

to popularize the electrosynthesis of organic raw materials. The promotion and application of

technologies such as electrosynthesis of protein should be accelerated to reduce the

over-utilization of biological resources. It is estimated that by 2035, industries such as

electrosynthesis of raw materials and proteins will be undergoing large-scale development,

and that by 2050, the annual output of methane electrosynthesis will reach 50 billion m³.

6.4.4 Promote Ecological Poverty Alleviation via Upgrading the Industrial Chain

PV-based poverty alleviation, eco-tourism etc. should be promoted to improve the

development of underdeveloped areas, to phase out backward production methods

destructive to the ecological environment, such as lake reclaimation, logging and deforestation,

overgrazing, and over-hunting of wild animals, and to enhance underdeveloped areas’ green

development capability. In areas with abundant clean energy resources, the development of

solar and wind energy should be accelerated, and PV and wind power- based poverty

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alleviation models promoted, expanding local residents’ range of income sources,

increasing their income levels, and improving their quality of life. In other underdeveloped

areas, advanced manufacturing, such as electrical equipment, and service industries, such

as eco-tourism, should be developed, upgrading industrial and value chains to permit

realization of greater value per unit of natural resource inputs, and sustainable use of

biological resources.

Column 6-11

China’s Remarkable “PV-based Poverty

Alleviation” Results

PV-based poverty alleviation mainly involves the installation of solar panels on the roofs

of rural households and agricultural greenhouses, meeting household electricity needs

and feeding surplus electricity back into the grid. This not only ensures electricity supply,

but also generate incomes for farmers. A 300 kW PV power station can create a stable

annual income of over 200000 yuan for as long as 20 years, assuming good operating

and maintenance conditions.

By July 2020, the cumulative scale of PV power designated for poverty-reduction in

China reached 26.49 GW, benefiting 4.18 million poor households, equivalent to helping

over 12 million poor people, assuming that each household contained three people. This

has been the single poverty-reduction campaign with the most extensive benefits so far,

playing a major role in China’s poverty reduction and alleviation efforts.

6.5 Plans for Promoting Ecological Restoration and Emergency

Protection Based on GEI

GEI and the coordinated development of “electricity, water, land and forests” should be

promoted in order to eliminate water shortages and facilitate the ecological restoration and

protection of desert areas. Application of live dynamic monitoring systems, powered by

ubiquitous clean energy, should be broadened, further improving the level of biodiversity

protection, while emergency protection projects for endangered wild animals and plants

should be implemented to provide targeted and efficient protection.

6.5.1 Accelerate the Application of “Electricity-Water-Land-Forest”

The “electricity-water-land-forest” ecological restoration model should be implemented in

coastal desert regions abundant in wind and solar energy, in West Asia, North Africa, Western

South America, Oceania and other regions, accelerating the construction of clean

energy-powered seawater (saltwater) desalination projects, eliminating fresh water shortages,

and promoting the ecological protection and restoration of fragile areas such as deserts,

savannas, and Gobi.

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Column 6-12

The Electricity-Water-Land-Forest

Development Model and Its Application

The UAE and other Gulf Arab countries share hot, dry climates with average annual

rainfall of less than 42 mm. However, given the UAE’s high living standards, per capita

daily water consumption there exceeds 7 cubic meters, ranking third worldwide after

only the United States and Canada. Statistics indicate that annual water consumption in

Dubai, UAE, exceeds that city’s own natural renewable water resources by 26 times, with

fresh water mainly supplied from groundwater and desalination. Long-term, massive

exploitation of groundwater resources has severely degraded the water quality of the

nearby underground aquifers, aggravating the salinization of local well water and posing

a great threat to the local ecological environment. However, via the large-scale

development of PV energy, and the utilization of adequate clean energy supplies to

promote desalination, the UAE is able to obtain over 4.5 million tons of fresh water every

day through desalination, meeting 98% of its residential and industrial water needs.

Water-saving irrigation technology also allows widespread use of desalinated seawater

for vegetation conservation in local desert areas, which has allowed the greening rate in

Dubai, a city built in the desert, to reach 25%, with green area of 25 m²per capita.

6.5.2 Promote Dynamic Biodiversity Monitoring Systems

A globally-interconnected clean energy system, GEI can also act as an accelerator for the

establishment of biodiversity monitoring systems covering forests, grasslands, deserts, etc..

These would dynamically monitor and take stock of global biodiversity, providing valuable data

and technical support for biodiversity protection, and especially for the monitoring of

endangered organisms, covering various categories, groups and habitats. Comprehensive

monitoring, early warning and evaluation platforms should be established to provide key data,

systematic analysis and optimal plans for the protection of endangered animals and plants.

Column 6-13

Ecological Monitoring Assists in

Protection of Elephant Herd

Starting in April 2021, a group of Asian elephants migrated for long distances from

Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, eventually even arriving in Kunming, Yunnan’s provincial

capital (Figure 1). However, human-elephant conflict was avoided during this entire

process, a smooth migration which benefited from the application of ecological

monitoring systems. Yunnan has established a monitoring and early warning system for

Asian elephants integrating drone monitoring, infrared cameras, AI video, intelligent

broadcasting systems and mobile phone applications for early warning purposes,

allowing alarms to be issued only 12 seconds after monitoring information is obtained,

and constantly monitoring an area’s wild elephant numbers, and activity. While reducing

the losses for humans, this has also created a cultural and ecological corridor for Asian

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elephant migration. Moreover, by recording and accurately identifying the wild Asian

elephants’ morphological characteristics, such as the shapes of ears, incisors, backs,

tails, scars, facial bones etc., both the elephant herds and individual elephants passing

through an area can be identified, separately named, and recorded in a database.

Thanks to this complete ecological monitoring system and comprehensive protection,

the population of wild Asian elephants in Yunnan has grown from around 190 in the early

1980s to around 300 now, a remarkable achievement.

Figure 1 Asian Elephants Migrating

6.5.3 Improve Wildlife Emergency Protection Capabilities

Emergency protection projects, such as water supply, animal rescue, and wildfire prevention,

using clean electricity as their main energy source, should be rolled out, offering protection to

wild animals and plants, and facilitating biodiversity conservation.

Water supply projects. On the African Savannah, limited rainfall and severe water shortages in

the dry season result in the deaths of many of animals and plants. In natural habitats, water

pumps, pumped wells and other water supply devices should be installed, helping to extract

groundwater during dry seasons, and providing safe, adequate water sources for wild animals

and plants, reducing drought-induced deaths.

Animal rescue projects. Nature reserves require the construction of environmentally friendly

animal shelters and aid stations. These should use distributed micro-grids powered by “solar

PV + energy storage” to provide adequate local clean energy supplies without causing

environmental damage to the surrounding reserves, providing effective rescue and protection

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for endangered animals while conserving and improving their living environments.

Wildfire early warning and protection projects. In Oceania, South America, North America, and

southern Europe, frequent wildfires leading to the deaths of numerous animals and plants. In

2020, wildfires in Australia covering over 10.7 million hectares killed 1 billion wild animals.

Acceleration of early warning and protection projects helping to reduce the damage inflicted

by large-scale wildfires on that region’s wildlife is an urgent necessity.

Column 6-14

Clean Energy Helps Protect

Endangered Animals

The Tibetan antelope is one of China’s national first-class protected animals (Figure 1). It

inhabits the Altun Mountains in Xinjiang, Qiangtang in Tibet, and the Quma River region

in Qinghai. One of the foundation species of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau’s ecosystem, it is

key to maintaining that area’s ecological balance. Due to ecological degradation and

poaching during the 1970s and 1980s, Tibetan antelope numbers fell to less than 70000

during the 1980s and 1990s.

Since the start of the 21st century, China has stepped up efforts to protect and rescue

the Tibetan antelope, establishing Tibetan antelope rescue stations in Hoh Xil and other

protected areas, providing them with rapid rescue services, particularly during their

breeding season. Thanks to decades of ongoing rescue and effective ecological

protection, the population of Tibetan antelopes in China is now in excess of 300000, over

three times that at the end of the last century.

Figure 1 Tibetan Antelope Herd, Hoh Xil, Qinghai

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Column 6-15

Clean Energy Helps Ensure

Drinking Water Quality for Wildlife

One-third of African elephants live in Botswana. In the summer of 2020, over 300

elephant carcasses were discovered in Botswana’s Okavango Delta, representing a

disaster in elephant conservation terms (Figure 1). Subsequent investigations

revealed that blue-green algae floating on the surface of nearby ponds were

responsible for the deaths. To be precise, a toxin from the photosynthetic bacteria

had rendered the water poisonous; not only to elephants, but also to humans, birds,

fish and other creatures.

Figure 1 Elephant Dead from Toxic Drinking Water, Botswana

Under the influence of eutrophication and global warming, the climate in Africa,

especially southern Africa, has become hotter and drier during the dry season, creating

excellent conditions for the rapid proliferation of blue-green algae. Statistics reveal that

the concentration of microcystic toxins (the most common and most toxic type of

cyanobacterial toxin) in the waters of the African continent averages 8836 micrograms

per liter, far higher than the World Health Organization’s tentative recommended

maximum value for daily consumption by mammals and humans, of 1.0 microgram/liter.

This problem is particularly serious in southern Africa, including Botswana where the

mass deaths of elephants cited above occurred, where the microcystic toxin

concentration averages 13400 times the WHO recommendation. Small ponds and water

pits are important sources of drinking water for wild mammals. Under the combined

effects of climate change and eutrophication, they are becoming breeding grounds for

blue-green algae, significantly increasing the risk of extinction for endangered animals in

Africa.

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By providing an adequate and ubiquitous supply of clean energy, extensive GEI

development will permit the installation of more water quality monitoring and purification

devices at water holes and other water sources for wildlife, reducing the effects of

large-scale propagation of blue-green algae and other harmful algae, and protecting the

emergency drinking water of endangered wildlife.

6.6 Innovation Plan for Key Biodiversity Promotion Technology Based on

GEI

In order to advance biodiversity through GEI, technological innovation must be supported, with

a focus on promoting technological innovation and breakthroughs in areas including clean

energy generation, distribution and utilization, electrosynthesis of fuels and raw materials, and

CCUS, further improving their cost-effectiveness, efficiency and reliability. By thus promoting

global biodiversity protection, the harmonious coexistence of humanity and nature can be

realized (Figure 6.14).

Figure 6.14 Key Technology for Promoting Biodiversity Based on GEI

6.6.1 Accelerate Technological Innovation in Clean Power Generation

Clean power generation technology is key to the efficient use of clean energy and the effective

control of greenhouse gas emissions. It provides an important foundation for the large-scale

development of clean energy, acceleration of carbon emission reduction, and reduction of

environmental pollution. Solar and wind power technology are particularly critical.

1 Solar power generation technology

Solar power generation generally refers to PV power generation and solar thermal power

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generation. PV power generation is currently the fastest-growing clean energy with the greatest

development potential. Improving the efficiency of PV power generation should be a priority for

future solar energy utilization.

Research on PV materials with high power conversion efficiency. The theoretical photoelectric

conversion efficiency of silicon-based PV materials such as monocrystalline and polycrystalline

silicon is roughly 40%, but at present, their efficiency is only aroungd 20%, leaving

considerable room for future improvement. PV materials such as amorphous and

microcrystalline silicon, cadmium telluride, copper indium gallium selenide and other materials

which can be made into thin-film cells also have obvious advantages over silicon-based solar

cells in terms of cost and potential.

The trend in manufacturing and installation favors thin-film cells and their simplicity. At present,

thin-film cells account for 4.6% of total solar cell production worldwide. However, these PV cells,

which are manufactured in thin pieces, are more convenient to install on buildings, and can

even sprayed onto building surfaces, providing great economies in terms of installation costs.

Solar tracking technology. By adjusting the angles of PV panels, solar tracking systems can

generally increase their annual incident radiation intensity by around 30%, optimizing solar

energy utilization efficiency. However, due to the current high cost of this technology, it has yet

to be commercialized.

2 Wind power generation technology

Wind power generation is one of the clean power technologies with the best prospects for

large-scale future development and application. Increasing scale, coping with low wind

speeds, and robustness to extreme climates should be emphasized in wind power’s future

development.

Research on wind turbines with large single-unit capacity. Stable, abundant wind resources

offshore make offshore wind a key area with great potential for future development. As single

unit wind turbines increase in scale, the area swept by their turbine blades increases, the

improving the utilization efficiency of offshore wind and the number of available hours for power

generation, and reducing its cost. It is estimated that by 2025, offshore wind power single-unit

capacity will reach 20 MW.

Research on low wind speed turbine technology. While start-up wind speeds for doubly-fed

wind turbines generally exceed 4 m/s, there are many low wind speed areas around cities and

in some offshore areas. The development and utilization of these wind resources will require the

development of low wind speed turbine technology. Direct-drive turbines have start-up wind

speeds as low as 2 m/s, but their cost must be further reduced for wider commercial

application.

Research on turbine technology suitable for extreme weather conditions. Under extremely cold

weather conditions, turbine blades are prone to icing, seriously affecting utilization efficiency.

Existing turbines will generally stop automatically at -30°C. To enable the large-scale

development of wind power in the Arctic, research must focus on wind turbine heating,

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water-repellent coatings for blade surfaces, and materials resistant to low temperatures, in

order to overcome the obstacles facing wind turbines in the extreme Arctic climate.

6.6.2 Accelerate Innovation in Clean Power Distribution

Development of a clean energy-dominant, electricity-centric, global mode of energy

development, implies a key role for grid technology. Power grids’ transmission capacity,

distribution capacity and economics should be continuously improved, with a focus on UHV

transmission, high-voltage large-capacity DC submarine cables, large-scale grid operation

and control, and other technological breakthroughs, laying the foundation for global grid

interconnection, further clean development, and ecological and environmental restoration

worldwide.

1 UHV transmission technology

Further increase UHV transmission capacity and range. Based on existing UHV transmission

technology, AC and DC transmission technology featuring even higher voltages and capacity

should be studied and developed. Improvements in technologies including voltage control,

insulation and overvoltage protection, electromagnetic environment and noise control, external

insulation coordination, and for the manufacturing of key equipment, will permit further

increases in UHV technology’s transmission range and capacity.

Develop highly reliable converter transformers, converter valves, DC circuit breakers and other

key equipment. DC transmission technology is commonly used for connecting large power

production plants and load centers. It is estimated that by 2030, a comprehensive

breakthrough will be made in UHVDC transmission technology permitting a voltage of

±1500 kV and 20 GW transmission capacity. The costs of converter transformers, converter

valves and smoothing reactors are expected to fall by 24%, 15% and 29% respectively, with

similar declines in other equipment costs.

Develop UHV power transmission equipment suited to extremely hot and cold regions. At

present, the ambient operating temperature for UHV projects is constrained between a

minimum of -50 ℃ to -40 ℃, and a maximum of 50 ℃ to 60 ℃, while the lowest Arctic

temperatures reach -68 ℃, and ground temperatures near the equator can exceeds 80 ℃,

both outside these operational limits. In future, a complete set of UHV power transmission

equipment suitable for extremely cold and hot regions should be developed, meeting the

needs of large-scale clean energy plant development near the North Pole and Equator.

2 High-voltage, high-capacity DC submarine cable technology

HVDC submarine cable is an important means of power transmission for offshore wind

development and cross-sea power interconnection. At present the highest capacity HVDC

submarine cables reach ±700 kV/3.4 GW^A(voltage class/transmission power). In future,

higher voltage, longer range, higher capacity cables should be developed, which will

__________

ASource: GEIDCO. Roadmap for the Development of High-voltage, Large-capacity DC Submarine Cable

Technology. Beijing: China Electric Power Press, 2020.

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involve breakthroughs in technologies including insulation materials, processing,

accessories, and project construction. Electrical performance, structural design and

insulating materials present the main obstacles to voltage increases, while conductor

cross-section and insulating materials’ thermal characteristics present the main challenges

to increasing capacity. It is estimated that by 2025, DC submarine cable of ±800 kV/4 GW

capacity should be usable in engineering applications. With further improvements in

insulating materials’ heat resistance, DC submarine cables could reach ±800 kV/8 GW by

2035, and over ±1100 kV by 2050, assuming major breakthroughs in the properties of

conductors and insulating materials.

3 Bulk grid operation control technology

Super-large AC/DC hybrid power grids offer an important infrastructure platform for

large-scale, centralized collection, transcontinental long-distance transmission, and

flexible long-range distribution of power. This technology will become safer, faster, and

smarter in the future.

Research safety and stability mechanisms, characteristics and analysis techniques for bulk

power grids. Adaptation to the super-large AC/DC hybrid power grid of the future will

necessitate faster progress in the analysis of their transient stability, of the characteristics of

low-frequency oscillations in large-area interconnected power grids and in their mechanisms of

occurrence, of cascading failures in bulk power grids, and of the application of complexity

theory to the theoretical analysis of large-scale blackouts.

Research on real-time/super-real-time simulation and decision-making technology. Offline,

online, real-time, and super-real-time are increasingly short time scales. As power grid scale

expands, the operational requirements for time-sensitive analysis and decision-making are

becoming increasingly demanding. In the future, the development of real-time and

super-real-time power grid simulation technology for will further improve the safety of bulk

power grid operation and control.

Research into power grid fault diagnosis, recovery and automatic reconfiguration technology.

As computer technology and control theory develop, new technology such as online fault

monitoring and diagnosis, relay and wide-area backup protection, optimization of post-fault

recovery strategies, and intelligent reconfiguration should render bulk power grids more secure

and robust to various operating environments and types of failure, with self-healing capability

that greatly improves their resistance to cascading failures, extreme weather disasters and

external damage.

6.6.3 Speed up Technological Innovation in Electricity Replacement

Electricity has the advantages of cleanliness, safety and convenience. Technological

innovation in electricity replacement will be of great significance in the promotion of the energy

consumption revolution and in achieving clean development, and also has significance for

accelerating the phasing out of fossil fuels, coping with climate change, and promoting

biodiversity protection.

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1 Transportation electrification technology

At present, the electrification rate in the transportation sector is only 1.3%; accelerating

electrification in transportation will thus be key to the sector’s clean transition. The “three power

technologies”, vehicle battery (EVB）, drive motors and motor control technologies, as shown in

Figure 6.15, below, will be the focus of future development.

Figure 6.15 Electric Vehicles’ “Three Power Technologies”

Research high energy density power battery technology. The pace of power battery

development should be increased. High-performance lithium-ion and graphene-lithium

batteries should be developed, and crucial improvements made in battery energy density

and safety, reducing their cost. Investment in wireless charging and battery swapping

technology research and development should also be increased, greatly improving

charging efficiency.

Research on high-performance drive motor technology. The DC motors, permanent magnet

brushless DC motors and AC induction motors currently available on the market have

drawbacks such as low overload capacity, high motor temperatures and demagnetization of

permanent magnets. Considering drive motors and control capabilities taken together, the

major goal of motor technology should be the development of high power density, high

efficiency permanent magnet synchronous motors. This will require major breakthroughs in

motor topology design, magnetic motor materials and processing technology.

Research into motor control technology. Motor control strategies directly affect electric

vehicles’ operation. At present, commonly used methods include frequency speed control and

vector control. On the whole, motor control technology remains in its infancy, lagging behind in

applications with complex operating conditions. As intelligent control technologies such as

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adaptive control, fuzzy control, neural networks and genetic algorithms are popularized and

applied, motor control technology will increase in intelligence.

2 Electric heating (cooling) technology

Electric heating (cooling) is a heating (cooling) technology via which electrical energy can be

directly or indirectly converted into heat. As this develops its thermal efficiency should improve,

reducing energy consumption, and increasing heat exchange efficiency. In terms of electric

heating furnaces, key areas for research and development include improving the accuracy of

temperature control and level of automated control of resistance furnaces, ultra-high-power

electric arc furnace technology, precise temperature control induction heating systems, and

large-scale microwave heating technology. In terms of heat pumps and air conditioners, key

areas of R&D should include improving systems’ climate adaptability, reducing operating noise,

environmentally friendly refrigerants, and development of non-traditional air conditioners for

data centers.

6.6.4 Accelerate Technological Innovation in Electrosynthesis of Fuels and Raw

Materials

Electrosynthesis of fuels and raw materials uses clean electricity to produce hydrogen,

methane, methanol and other fuels and raw materials, promoting decarbonization in the

metallurgy, aerospace, industrial heating and other fields. It can greatly reduce fossil fuel

utilization, curbing damage to the ecological environment and promoting biodiversity

protection.

1 Electrohydrogen

Hydrogen is the substance with the highest energy density. In the future, research and

development into technology for the production of hydrogen using electricity (electrohydrogen)

will focus on improving the conversion efficiency of these technologies and reducing

equipment costs. Research into key materials such as electrocatalysts and proton exchange

membranes and key components such as membrane electrodes, air compressors, hydrogen

storage systems, and hydrogen circulation systems should be accelerated. It is expected that

by 2030, the cost of clean power generation should decline rapidly, and hydrogen production

via water electrolysis will become economically viable. At a cost lower than 2 USD/kg,

electrohydrogen production will be competitive, and widely adopted in transportation, synthetic

ammonia production, industrial heating and smelting. It is estimated that by 2050,

breakthroughs in key technologies will include cheap, high efficiency electrocatalysts, long-life,

high stability, high temperature solid oxide piles, and high temperature solid oxide electrolyzers.

As these and related technologies mature, the costs of clean power generation will further

decline, with the cost of electrohydrogen, by then the most competitive and mainstream

hydrogen production method, falling to 1 USD/kg, resulting in increasing use of hydrogen in

transportation, industry and other fields.

2 Electromethane

Methane is the main component of natural gas and a widely used fuel. In the future,

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electromethane development should focus on improving conversion efficiency and reducing

equipment costs. Research into high-efficiency reactors, improving the efficiency of

by-product heat utilization and technology for direct electro-reduction of CO₂should also be

accelerated. It is estimated that by 2030, heat management during methanation will be

improved, increasing recovery of residue heat from the reaction via optimization of the

integration and coordination of water electrolysis and methanation systems, increasing the

overall energy efficiency of electricity to methane conversion to 60%, and reducing its cost to

around 0.8 USD/m³, allowing the launch of pilot applications for certain end users. It is

estimated that by 2050, water electrolysis and methanation systems will be mature, and

breakthrough technology for direct electro-reduction of CO₂to methane will be developed

and extensively utilized in distributed application scenarios. If the comprehensive energy

efficiency of electricity to methane conversion is increased to 70%, its cost will be reduced to

around 0.4 USD/m³, permitting its wide adoption at energy-consuming terminals far from

natural gas producing areas.

3 Electromethanol

Methanol is a high-quality energy source and an important raw material for the C1 chemical

industry. Electro-methanol is a technology that synthesizes methanol from CO₂and hydrogen,

after this has been produced by water electrolysis. This technology should aim to improve

conversion efficiency and reduce equipment costs. Key research topics include research

and development of high-efficiency reactors and catalysts, the improvement of by-product

heat utilization efficiency, and technology for production of methanol by direct

electro-reduction of CO₂. Technological progress and the decreasing costs of clean power

generation will expand electromethanol’s scope of application. It is estimated that by 2030,

the cost of electrosynthesis of methanol will be reduced to around 0.54 USD/kg, and

commercial experiments and demonstration projects will be underway in areas with

abundant clean energy. It is expected that by 2050, the single-pass conversion rate and

selectivity of CO₂methanolification will have significantly improved, the cost of electrolyzers,

auxiliaries and other equipment will have greatly reduced, and the cost of methanol

electrosynthesis will have dropped to 0.26 USD/kg. A raw materials electrosynthesis

industrial chain, featuring methanol in particular, will take shape, with many downstream

chemical industries developing. Raw materials produced using clean energy, water and CO₂

will start appear in household use.

6.6.5 Accelerate innovation in CCUS technology

Carbon Dioxide Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) refers to the process of separating

CO₂from emission sources and then capturing, directly using or storing it to reduce emissions.

Apart from carbon capture, storage and utilization technology, this can also involve

transportation, as shown in Figure 6.16. CCUS is an emerging industry, still in the R&D and

demonstration project stage, but is likely to be intensified and industrialized in future. It is

expected that by 2030, the world should have started to embrace the commercialization of

existing CCUS technology, recognizing its potential for industrialization. The cost and energy

consumption of first-generation capture technology should 10%-15% lower than current levels.

Second-generation capture technology is likely to have similar costs to the first-generation,

making long-distance land pipelines with a single-pipe transmission capacity of 2 million

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tons/year feasible. By 2035, the costs and energy consumption of the first-generation capture

technology should have been reduced by 15%-25% compared to current levels, and

commercialized second-generation technology should also be available, with a cost

advantage of 5%-10% over the first-generation. Now ready to be industrialized, with

breakthroughs in geological storage safety assurance technology, this technology should

achieve commercial operation, and the construction of large-scale demonstration projects is

likely. By 2040, breakthroughs in CCUS system integration and risk management technology

are likely, and CCUS clusters should take shape. Intensive development will greatly reduce the

overall cost of CCUS, with the cost of second-generation capture technology falling by

40%-50% compared to now, allowing its commercial application in many sectors. By 2050,

CCUS technology should have been widely deployed, and multiple CCUS industrial clusters

established.

Figure 6.16 CCUS Technical Processes and Classifications^A

__________

ASource: Department of Science and Technology for Social Development under the Ministry of Science and

Technology, The Administrative Center for China's Agenda 21, Roadmap for the Development of China's

Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage Technology, 2019.

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6.7 GEI Provides an Excellent Tool for Promotion of Biodiversity

Protection

Construction of GEI and acceleration of the energy and power revolution will coordinate the

efforts made in response to climate change, managing environmental pollution, reducing

habitat loss, promoting the sustainable use of biological resources, contributing to ecological

restoration, and serving as a practicable, systematic, advanced and efficient tool for the

promotion of global biodiversity, with significant advantages in the following four respects.

1 Effective

Construction of GEI, acceleration of the global green energy and power revolution based on

extensive clean energy development, and further electrification of energy consumption, will not

only meet the energy needs of economic and social development, but also accelerate the

decoupling of development and carbon emission levels, reduce environmental pollution and

degradation, provide adequate and reliable clean energy for habitat protection, sustainable

use of biological resources, and ecological restoration and emergency protection of wild

animals and plants, and minimize the damage inflicted on biodiversity by energy development

and utilization.

2 Technologically advanced

Comprehensively integrating advanced energy technologies such as clean power generation,

distribution and utilization, electrosynthesis of fuels and raw materials, and CCUS, GEI seeks

also to deeply integrate the latest intelligent technology including big data, the Internet of

Things, artificial intelligence, and blockchain technology. Via coordination of differences in

resources, time zones, seasons, and electricity prices, it will achieve a safe, economic and

adequate supply of clean energy worldwide, guaranteeing availability of green energy for

ecosystem restoration.

3 Economical and efficient

Via GEI, the effective development and optimal worldwide distribution of clean energy will be

possible with relatively modest economic investments, assisting the promotion of green energy

and biodiversity protection in a coordinated way, while creating huge synergies in climate and

environmental governance, reducing poverty and disease, promoting industrial upgrading,

and creating new jobs. It will contribute to a cumulative increase in social well-being of 720-800

trillion U.S. dollars, implying that a one dollar of investment in GEI will return over nine dollars in

terms of biological and human well-being. It will therefore greatly support ecological prosperity

and economic and social development.

4 Favorable conditions

At present, the availability of a complete global top-level design for GEI covering all continents

and key regions has created a situation favorable to its development. In terms of resources, the

total global development potential of hydro, wind, and solar power is in excess of 130000 TW,

development of only 0.05% of which would be sufficient to fulfill the power needs of humanity

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as a whole. In terms of technology, UHV power transmission technology is advanced and

mature, clean power generation technology is undergoing continual progress, and adoption of

smart grid technology is widening. In terms of costs, by 2035, the LCOE of hydro, wind, and

solar power would be reduced to 4, 2.5, and 1.8 U.S. cents, respectively, indicative of GEI’s

excellent cost-effectiveness. In terms of politics, GEI development is in the interests of

humanity as a whole and of every nation. It has been included in the implementation of the UN’s

2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Paris Agreement, global environmental

governance frameworks, the Belt and Road, and other frameworks, and has established itself

as an object of global consensus, with extensive support from the international community.

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Supporting mechanisms will play a vital role in promoting the energy and electric

power revolution, and conserving biodiversity via GEI development. Further

improving the adaptability, flexibility and inclusiveness of these mechanisms

should be prioritized to ensure the coordinated development of energy, power

and biodiversity. Looking ahead towards the prospects for further biodiversity

enhancement via GEI, this book includes relevant suggestions to governments,

international organizations, enterprises and institutions, with the aim of jointly

advancing the energy and electric power revolution alongside biodiversity

conservation.

7.1 Key Mechanisms for Biodiversity Conservation via GEI

In order to further promote biodiversity via GEI, efforts are needed to introduce innovative

mechanisms covering planning and coordination, policy support, financial investment,

international cooperation and capacity building. The UN, national governments,

international organizations, enterprises, institutions, and the public should be encouraged

to play their unique roles and identify GEI as a key solution for biodiversity conservation.

GEI’s inclusion in the working framework will promote the coordinated development of the

economy and ecology, helping to create a shared future for all life on Earth, as shown in

Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1 GEI’s Key Biodiversity Conservation Mechanisms

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7.1.1 Planning and Coordination Mechanism

Planning and coordination not only relate to top-level design, but also directly affect specific

aspects of implementation. Hence improvement in the planning and coordination mechanisms

for GEI, taking factors affecting biodiversity comprehensively into account, is necessary, in

order to promote biodiversity conservation, and facilitate the coordinated development of GEI

and biodiversity. Planning and coordination mechanism innovation should focus upon

optimization of planning methods, coordination of influencing factors, and promotion of

planning alignment.

Optimization of planning methods should reflect the new concept of innovative, coordinated,

green and open development for shared benefit, while complying with the core requirements of

biodiversity conservation and restoration. Efforts must be made to formulate a comprehensive

planning scheme for infrastructure and biodiversity conservation, to carry out analysis of

benefits, and to improve standardized planning procedures. Related planning and research

results, will, together with the GEI Development and Cooperation Platform, be used to ensure

infrastructure development adopts low-carbon, environmentally-friendly principles from the

planning stage onwards.

In terms of coordination of influencing factors, both internal factors, such as changes in

ecosystems, and external factors such as demographics, the economy, technology, society,

politics and culture must be taken into consideration. Biodiversity conservation must be

coordinated with GEI development, eliminating factors’ pressure points and creating

transformative momentum, thus promoting the three major targets: biodiversity conservation,

sustainable utilization and shared benefits for all.

Regarding promotion of planning alignment, in accordance with the principle of integrating

global top-level design with independent national planning, efforts to catalyze the coordination

and alignment of global and regional energy planning with national energy development, and

strengthen interlinkages between energy development and ecological conservation, will be

necessary, along with measures to promote the unified planning and implementation of power

generation, transmission, and utilization, thereby ensuring improved coordinated development

of GEI and biodiversity conservation.

7.1.2 Policy Support Mechanism

Promotion of biodiversity through GEI will require fully leveraging policies in both leading and

supporting roles. Under the guidance of the UN’s 2020-2030 Global Biodiversity Action

Framework, biodiversity conservation policies, regulations, incentives and penalties should be

clarified, and innovation in the degree and method of supervision and management redoubled.

Cross-border and cross-industry policy coordination mechanisms should be established to

underpin biodiversity conservation.

Improvements in relevant policies and regulations. Policies for biological resource conservation

and sustainable use should be introduced and improved, and the formulation of laws and

regulations promoting clean energy development, grid interconnection, energy efficiency

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enhancement, electric power replacement, and electrosynthesis of fuels and raw materials

should be accelerated, driving GEI development and biodiversity conservation.

Promote regulatory innovation. The stringency of and methods for biodiversity conservation

supervision and management should be bolstered innovatively, establishing cross-sector

coordinated supervision mechanisms involving relevant government departments and

regulatory authorities, and policy implementation plans and supporting measures for

GEI-based biodiversity conservation formulated, taking into account local conditions,

improving government services and supervision capabilities.

Enhance policy coordination. A policy coordination system for GEI-based biodiversity

promotion should be established to promote policy coordination among countries and remove

obstacles at policy level. A cross-industry policy coordination mechanism is called for to

coordinate the policy needs of energy and ecological industries for industrial development,

engineering construction, financial support, and technological innovation, and to leverage

policy synergies via coordination of energy development and biodiversity conservation.

7.1.3 Financial Investment Mechanism

GEI development and biodiversity conservation will require sufficient funding, high-quality

financial services, and a sound financial investment mechanism ensuring stability in the supply

and utilization of funds. Innovation in the financial investment mechanism should emphasize

increasing funding sources, improving funding allocation, and strengthening financial services.

Increasing funding sources. The GEI Development and Cooperation Platform will be leveraged

to play a pivotal role in project development and fund raising, engaging an increased volume of

state and private capital in biodiversity conservation projects including clean energy

development, power grid interconnection, electric power replacement, and Carbon Capture

and Storage (CCS).

Improving the allocation of funds. A fund allocation and use system for GEI-based biodiversity

conservation should be established in order to enrich the management mechanism for

ecological restoration funds, share construction costs fairly and allocate project benefits

reasonably, unleashing market vitality, and guiding and promoting the implementation of clean

energy development and grid interconnection projects.

Strengthening financial services. Insurance companies and other financial institutions are

encouraged to provide a variety of insurance products and risk management tools, to guide the

participation of consultancies, credit rating agencies and other financial service institutions in

GEI-based biodiversity conservation projects, and to provide financial consulting, risk

assessment, credit rating and other related services.

7.1.4 International Cooperation Mechanism

International cooperation provides the foundation and assurances for GEI development and

biodiversity conservation. The in-depth participation in and continuous expansion of

cross-border cooperation by governments, enterprises and institutions will be required to

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further improve the global governance mechanisms of related fields. Innovation concerning the

international cooperation mechanism should prioritize building consensus concerning

cooperation, forging a cooperation platform, and promoting pragmatic cooperation.

Building consensus concerning cooperation. Publicity for the GEI-based biodiversity

conservation concept must be improved, and to integrate biodiversity conservation practices

into the green development concept calling for construction of an ecological system that

respects, conforms to, and protects nature, and contributes to a prosperous, clean, and

beautiful world. A broad consensus in the international community will lay the foundation for

further GEI development.

Creating a cooperation platform. International organizations like the Secretariat of the

Convention on Biological Diversity, UNEP, and GEIDCO must play an active role in coordinating

energy development and biodiversity conservation, and in engaging further enterprises,

organizations and institutions in the energy and ecology fields in the establishment of an

international biodiversity conservation cooperation platform involving more active and

extensive efforts, and in encouraging the participation of all parties in GEI development.

Promoting pragmatic cooperation. In the spirit of open, inclusive and common development for

shared benefit, GEI-based biodiversity conservation governance rules must be formulated in a

coordinated fashion, and innovative institutional structures, working mechanisms and operating

models created, in order to facilitate the common development of all nations, to expand areas

of common interest, and to enhance South-South and North-South cooperation for all-round,

in-depth cooperation.

7.1.5 Capacity Building Mechanism

Capacity building is a key step towards improving the levels of biodiversity conservation

knowledge, technology and management possessed by developing countries. Currently, most

developing countries face large biodiversity conservation “deficits”, and are in need of financial

and technological support from developed countries in order to improve their capacity building.

Innovation in the capacity building mechanism should focus on helping developing countries

enhance their governance capacity, talent cultivation and technological level improvement.

Enhancing governance capacity. A coordinated energy, power and natural environment

governance mechanism championing ecological conservation concepts must be established,

alongside systems for the conservation and restoration of forests, oceans, lakes, wetlands,

grasslands and other ecosystems through accelerated GEI development. These efforts will

strongly boost developing countries’ biodiversity governance and strengthen their ability to

implement specific or general campaigns, thereby systematically protecting and restoring

biodiversity, reversing biological degradation at its source.

Strengthening talent cultivation. Cultivation of talent in related fields such as energy and the

environment must be strengthened through establishing capacity transfer channels and talent

training mechanisms linking developed and underdeveloped regions, increasing investment in

biodiversity research, improving talent development, and promoting scientific research in order

to propel GEI innovation and development.

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Improving technological level. Taking actual needs into account, basic research, the

application and transfer of research results, and technological innovation in clean energy

development, grid interconnection, and electricity replacement, must be improved. Biodiversity

conservation-related technology transfer and technical assistance must be further promoted,

helping to remove technological monopolies and green trade barriers imposed by developed

countries, and facilitating developing countries’ improvements in biodiversity conservation

capacity and resilience.

7.2 Future Outlook and Proposals

GEI features a clean, low-carbon modern energy system and an environmentally-friendly green

infrastructure system. The fundamental path towards the energy and electric power revolution,

GEI will help to guarantee synergies between economic and social development and

biodiversity conservation, facilitating the construction of ecological civilization and a shared

future for all life on Earth.

GEI will help to maintain the harmony between humanity and nature. It is said that “Nature is

the cradle of all life, including humanity, and the foundation of our survival and development.”

Thus GEI will uphold the new concept of innovative, coordinated, green, and open

development for shared benefit, and advance sustainable development and biodiversity

conservation through clean energy development. By taking into account all natural ecosystems,

including the atmosphere, land and freshwater, and related fields such as energy, the

environment, economy, and society, GEI will help to create a new energy system providing

sufficient energy resource supplies, with interconnected energy allocation, clean and green

energy utilization, and open and inclusive energy cooperation. GEI will thus provide a

systematic solution addressing climate change, environmental pollution and habitat loss, and

promoting the restoration of the ecological environment. GEI will help to curb biodiversity loss,

and to reduce the extinction risks that over 40% of bird species, 60% of amphibians, one

quarter of marine fish, and 10%-40% of mammals^Acurrently face, ensuring the harmonious

coexistence of all life.

GEI will help to maintain balance between economic development and biodiversity conservation.

Through GEI development, the green energy and electric power revolution will reinforce a

mutually-beneficial relationship between economic development and biodiversity conservation,

setting a new trend of win-win outcomes and development balancing the two. Through

biodiversity enhancement, more crops with high yields and high nutritive values will emerge,

accelerating the development of efficient ecological agriculture. Combined with adequate

clean energy supplies, this will greatly increase staple food output, diversifying food supplies,

and lifting people in underdeveloped areas of Africa, Asia, Central and South America out of

food poverty, drastically reducing their dependence on and overexploitation of wildlife. As the

biotechnology bio-medicine, biochemical engineering, and bio-pharmaceuticals sectors

flourish, strategic emerging industrial clusters centered on clean energy will rapidly take shape,

imparting strong momentum to global economic growth. This high-quality economic and social

development will further promote biodiversity conservation, thereby yielding increased

synergies.

__________

ASource: GEIDCO, Resolving the Crisis, Beijing: China Electric Power Press, 2020.

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GEI will help to advance the sustainable development of civilization on earth, facilitating

all-round green transformation of the economy and society led by the energy and electric

power revolution, and driving the transition from industrial civilization to ecological civilization.

Sufficient and sustainable supplies of clean energy will bring about great changes in modes of

production and industrial structure. As clean energy, ecological and environmental

conservation, and high-efficiency recycling technologies rapidly develop, traditional high

consumption, high pollution modes of production will be replaced by a high technology, high

efficiency, low consumption and low pollution green mode of production. Green ecological

industries compliant with the objective laws of material circulation, energy conversion, and

natural biological growth will develop into major industries, enriching both the material and

spiritual lives of the populace. Sufficient and sustainable supplies of clean energy will also

profoundly change concepts and lifestyles; concepts of “respecting and conforming to nature”

and “living in harmony and co-prosperity with nature” will gain ground, encouraging the

protection of nature while meeting humanity’s needs. Sufficient and sustainable supplies of

clean energy will reshape the energy value system, such that energy not only promotes social

development, but also enhances the well-being of humanity and life as a whole, helping to

construct a shared future for all life on Earth, and fostering a sustainable civilization,

characterized by harmony amongst people, society, and nature.

Promoting the energy and electric power revolution and GEI-based biodiversity conservation

will call for concerted efforts by all parties. We would therefore like to make the following

proposals:

We should enhance global consensus, leveraging the leading role of the UN and national

governments, prioritize biodiversity conservation driven by the energy and electric power

revolution, incorporate ecological conservation-related concepts into policies, regulations,

plans, and incentives at all levels, and strengthen publicity, enabling the public to recognize,

support, and partake in biodiversity conservation via the energy and electric power revolution.

We should make a concerted global effort, fully leveraging the coordination role of international

organizations, and adhering to the concept of innovative, coordinated, green, and open

development for shared benefit, with the aim of deriving improved economic, social and

environmental benefits. Via perfecting multilateral cooperation mechanisms, we should strive

for worldwide alignment of policies, plans and standards concerning energy transition,

infrastructure construction, ecological restoration, biodiversity conservation, funding support,

and technological innovation, thus integrating efforts to promote the energy and electric power

revolution with those promoting ecological civilization.

We should speed up global action, bringing the roles of enterprises, financial institutions,

universities and think tanks as major actors into full play, and striving for green, low-carbon and

sustainable development, meanwhile formulating global, regional, and national strategic plans,

action plans, and implementation roadmaps based on the actual conditions prevailing. We

should also strengthen theoretical research, technological and equipment R&D, and innovation

in development approaches and patterns, and speed up clean energy development, power

grid interconnection, and nature reserve conservation, promoting GEI development while

maintaining harmony between humanity and nature.

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We should strive for global win-win results, with energy interconnection forming the nexus of

efforts to construct an open, inclusive and shared international cooperation platform for win-win

results, leveraging the complementary advantages of developed and developing countries in

terms of technology, funding, markets, and resources, and enriching the funding sources

available for global energy transition and biodiversity conservation. Moreover, we should

encourage state and private capital to engage in the promotion of development, integration

and innovation in the energy, finance, and environmental conservation industries, and bolster

capacity building, technology transfer and scientific research cooperation, permitting the

construction of a shared future for all life on earth.

GEI is a worthy cause delivering benefits to all life on Earth, and one in which we can all

participate as pioneer, constructor and beneficiary. We should pool our efforts to accelerate

GEI development and the energy and electric power revolution to further enhance biodiversity

conservation, creating the “Noah’s Ark” of our era, as human society progresses towards its

next stage: ecological civilization and sustainable development.

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