It is this global interconnectivity that allows for inclusivity for energy to  
reach everybody in need. And so, GEI is in the centre of the two central  
concepts(sustainability and inclusivity) of our commitment to Agenda  
2030 and with our objectives in relation to climate change.  
—— The UN Secretary General Mr. António Guterres  
FOREWORD  
Sustainable development concerns the continued existence of humankind and its  
civilizations, and is the top priority facing the international community. Over the span  
of nearly two centuries since the Industrial Revolution, productivity has grown by leaps  
and bounds and human society has made unprecedentedly enormous strides—yet it  
has been at the expense of depleting natural resources and damaging the ecological  
environment. Such a path of development has eaten away at our future generations’  
prospects for growth and posed threats to our energy, economy, society, and environment,  
leading humankind to a crossroads of life and death. No longer able to delay action or  
bypass the crisis, countries around the world have worked hard blazing a new trail of  
sustainable development. At the United Nations General Assembly in September 2015,  
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (the 2030 Agenda for short) set out 17  
Sustainable Development Goals, providing a sustainable development action guide for  
the international community. Over the past few years, implementation of the 2030 Agenda  
has made encouraging progress, but confronted daunting challenges at the same time.  
Identifying a path for development that can accomplish the goals of sustainability more  
quickly and effectively is now the paramount task facing every country in the world.  
Energy is a crucial material basis sustaining human society, and therefore exerts profound  
and wide-reaching influence across multiple areas of sustainable development—including  
economy, society, and environment. However, the current energy structure with fossil fuels  
playing the main role has not only proved to be unsustainable, but also become a key  
barrier to sustainable human development. This makes the need to accelerate transition  
to green, low-carbon energies ever more pressing. At the UN Sustainable Development  
Summit held on September 26, 2015, Chinese President Xi Jinping proposed Global  
Energy Interconnection (GEI) as a means to accelerate the energy transition, responding  
to global challenges with a Chinese approach to sustainable human development. His  
proposal has been met with high praise and a broad response from the global community.  
As the UN Secretary-General Guterres puts it, GEI is central to achieving sustainable  
human development and inclusive global growth.  
GEI is an important platform for the large-scale global exploitation, transmission, and  
utilization of clean energy, and a modern energy system featuring clean energy, electricity  
generation, and interconnection. GEI takes energy transition as the link connecting roads  
of reform, green, prosperity, and harmony for sustainable development. The road of  
reform aims to realize: the transition from fossil fuels to clean energy in energy production,  
from local to transnational balancing, to transcontinental and global deployments in  
energy allocation, and from coal, oil, and gas to electricity in energy consumption—all to  
achieve a fundamental, clean, low-carbon energy transition. The road of green aims to:  
make significant cuts to emissions of greenhouse gases (such as CO2) and other various  
pollutants resulting from fossil fuel consumption, accomplish climate change targets,  
give the ecological environment a complete makeover, strike a balance between energy  
development and environmental protection, and achieve coexistence between humankind  
and nature. The road of prosperity aims to: make innovative breakthroughs in technology,  
materials, equipment, and commercial models, boost global infrastructure upgrading, create  
a wealth of new jobs and investment opportunities, and inject strong momentum into global  
economic growth. The road of harmony aims to: realize energy transformation from fossil fuel  
competition to clean energy sharing and humanity-wide cooperation, strengthen political  
trust among countries of the world, decrease international and regional conflict, enhance  
South-South and South-North cooperation, and strengthen the cause of world peace.  
In March 2016, GEIDCO was founded with the vision of building an international  
cooperation platform encouraging extensive consultation, joint contribution, shared  
benefits, and win-win results. Since its inception, GEIDCO has done significant work on  
GEI—from concept promotion, to planning and research, to international cooperation and  
project implementation—all to facilitate the GEI’s transition from a concept proposed by  
China into tangible actions actively participated in by countries around the world. GEIDCO  
has also made a big push to advance research and practice on GEI’s role in promoting  
sustainable development. In November 2017, GEIDCO held a High-Level UN Symposium  
with the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) at the UN  
headquarters and released the Global Energy Interconnection Action Plan to Promote the  
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Since then GEIDCO has released additional  
research results at important UN conferences, including action plans for the Paris  
Agreement, global environmental governance, power access, and issues of poverty and  
health. Building on a summary of GEIDCO’s activity and achievements over the years,  
we have conducted in-depth research on sustainable development-related issues and  
compiled this into a book. This volume takes stock of GEI’s role in holistically promoting  
the 17 SDGs of the 2030 Agenda, works out specific roadmaps for each goal, and  
provides new ideas and approaches for the overall implementation of the 2030 Agenda.  
The book is divided into six chapters:  
Chapter I tackles the major challenges confronting sustainable human development,  
reviews progress according to the 2030 Agenda, and provides some insights and  
solutions regarding difficulties arising in the process of implementation.  
Chapter II analyzes the overall role of energy in sustainable human development,  
examines the definition of Global Energy Interconnection and GEI’s great importance in  
promoting the global energy transition, providing a roadmap for future GEI development.  
Chapter III provides a well-organized account of the content and status of the 17 SDGs set  
out in the 2030 Agenda, expounds the value of GEI for the implementation of each SDG  
from the 51 different aspects, and demonstrates the important role of GEI in promoting  
sustainable human development.  
Chapter IV proposes the ten major GEI actions for overall advancement of the 2030  
Agenda—including concept promotion, clean development and universal access to  
electricity—thereby offering a plan of action for global sustainable development.  
Chapter V presents the six mechanisms of cooperation—covering GEI planning,  
construction, operations, technical standards, and other aspects to guide countries  
worldwide to create a favorable environment for the joint promotion of GEI.  
Chapter VI envisions GEI’s ambitious blueprint for a future of sustainability in energy,  
economic, social, and environmental development.  
This book can provide reference, guidance, and support to the UN and various national  
governments in policymaking and planning, to enterprises and institutions taking part in  
GEI research and development, and to the general public, for enhancing awareness and  
gaining insight into GEI and related matters. Building GEI is in the interests of people and  
nations worldwide; its success will require a concerted effort. We are looking forward to  
working together with the global community to advance GEI development and create a  
brighter future for humankind!  
CONTENTS  
FOREWORD  
The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.............................................................001  
1
1.1 Major Challenges Facing Sustainable Human Development.......................................002  
1.1.1 Sustainable Economic Development...................................................................002  
1.1.2 Sustainable Social Development...........................................................................004  
1.1.3 Sustainable Environmental Development ...........................................................007  
1.2 The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.....................................................012  
1.2.1 The History of Sustainable Development............................................................013  
1.2.2 Proposals of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development ...............014  
1.2.3 The 2030 Agenda: Progress and Reflection .....................................................017  
References..........................................................................................................................................026  
Global Energy Interconnection......................................................................................................027  
2.1 Energy’s Overall Effect on Sustainable Development....................................................029  
2.1.1 Energy and Economic Sustainable Development.............................................029  
2.1.2 Energy and Social Sustainable Development....................................................030  
2.1.3 Energy and Environmental Sustainable Development.....................................031  
2.2 Accelerating the Energy Transition for Sustainable Development..............................033  
2.3 GEI Accelerates the Global Energy Transition.................................................................035  
2.3.1 Clean Energy..............................................................................................................037  
2.3.2 UHV Grid.....................................................................................................................039  
2.3.3 Smart Grid ..................................................................................................................042  
2.3.4 Energy System Reform via GEI .............................................................................043  
2.4 Conditions for Global Energy Interconnection.................................................................044  
2.4.1 Technological Feasibility..........................................................................................044  
2.4.2 Economic Competitiveness....................................................................................048  
2.4.3 Political Consensus..................................................................................................049  
2.5 The Road Ahead for Global Energy Interconnection ....................................................051  
References..........................................................................................................................................058  
2
I
GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.............................059  
3.1 Global Poverty Relief..............................................................................................................066  
3.2 Food Security...........................................................................................................................069  
3.3 Good Health and Well-being................................................................................................071  
3.4 Fair and Inclusive Quality Education...................................................................................073  
3.5 Gender Equality.......................................................................................................................076  
3.6 Clean Water and Sanitation..................................................................................................078  
3.7 Sustainable Energy for All.....................................................................................................081  
3.8 New Drivers of Economic Growth ......................................................................................083  
3.9 Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure..............................................................................085  
3.10 Reducing National and Regional Inequalities ................................................................090  
3.11 Clean, Low-carbon Smart Cities ......................................................................................093  
3.12 Sustainable Consumption and Production....................................................................096  
3.13 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Mitigation ...........................................................................099  
3.14 Protecting Marine Ecology.................................................................................................101  
3.15 Protecting Terrestrial Ecosystems....................................................................................102  
3.16 World Peace and Harmony................................................................................................105  
3.17 Global Cooperation..............................................................................................................106  
References..........................................................................................................................................109  
3
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda.....................................................................................................111  
4.1 GEI Research and Practice..................................................................................................112  
4.2 Practices and Achievements of Energy Interconnection in China..............................123  
4.2.1 Practices of China’s Energy Interconnection.....................................................123  
4.2.2 Thoughts and Outlook on China Energy Interconnection...............................131  
4.2.3 China Energy Interconnection Effectively Will Boost Sustainable  
4
Economic and Social Development.....................................................................135  
4.3 Ten Actions for GEI to Implement the 2030 Agenda.....................................................138  
4.3.1 Concept Promotion..................................................................................................139  
4.3.2 Clean Development..................................................................................................140  
4.3.3 Power Grid Interconnection ...................................................................................147  
II  
4.3.4 Universal Electricity Access....................................................................................161  
4.3.5 Electricity Replacement...........................................................................................163  
4.3.6 Smart Grid ..................................................................................................................166  
4.3.7 Energy Efficiency Enhancement............................................................................168  
4.3.8 Driving Innovation......................................................................................................171  
4.3.9 Capacity Building......................................................................................................174  
4.3.10 Policy Support.........................................................................................................174  
References..........................................................................................................................................176  
Mechanisms of GEI Cooperation...................................................................................................177  
5.1 Major Mechanisms for International Energy Cooperation.............................................178  
5.2 Mechanisms of GEI Cooperation........................................................................................182  
5.2.1 Global Energy Planning...........................................................................................183  
5.2.2 Transnational Project Construction......................................................................183  
5.2.3 Integrated Electricity-Carbon Trade.....................................................................185  
5.2.4 Power Interconnection Coordination ...................................................................187  
5.2.5 Energy Development Assistance ..........................................................................189  
5.2.6 Collaboration in Technical Standards..................................................................190  
References..........................................................................................................................................192  
5
6
GEI and Sustainable Human Development...............................................................................193  
6.1 Sustainable Energy Development Realized......................................................................194  
6.2 Sustainable Economic Development Realized................................................................196  
6.3 Sustainable Social Development Realized........................................................................198  
6.4 Sustainable Environmental Development Realized ........................................................200  
References..........................................................................................................................................202  
III  
The UN 2030 Agenda for  
Sustainable Development  
1
Towards Sustainable Development  
Since the Industrial Revolution, advances in science and technology  
have significantly risen levels of productivity and brought unprecedented  
prosperity to human society. Behind that prosperity, however, lies human  
overconsumption of Earth’s natural resources and persistent destruction  
of the ecological environment. This categorically unsustainable path of  
development has become ever more threatening to humanity’s continued  
existence. As a result, humanity has identified sustainable development—  
that can meet the needs of the current generation without posing any  
threats to the survival and development of future generations—as a  
common goal. This chapter begins with an analysis of the major challenges  
currently facing sustainable human development and a historical  
review of explorations in sustainable development; it then elaborates  
on the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030 Agenda  
for short), which is the sustainable development guide for countries  
worldwide; finally it puts forward insights and suggestions according  
to relevant developments since the formulation of the 2030 Agenda.  
1.1 Major Challenges Facing Sustainable Human Development  
Sustainable development involves a wide range of fields and aspects, which can be  
generally divided into economy, society, and environment. At the moment, sustainable  
human development is confronting daunting challenges in all three areas.  
1.1.1 Sustainable Economic Development  
Poverty remains severe. In 2015, 740 million people were living in extreme poverty (the  
daily living expenditures less than USD 1.9) in more than 100 countries around the world.  
410 million out of these people were in Sub-Saharan Africa, accounting for 40% of the total  
population in the region, as shown in Figure 1-1[1]. If using a daily living expenditure of less  
than USD 3.2 (the poverty line for lower- and middle-income countries), then 1.9 billion  
people are living in poverty worldwide, or 26% of the global populationsA. Therefore,  
eradicating poverty remains an uphill battle confronting the entire world.  
Source: The World Bank https://www.shihang.org/zh/news/press-release/2018/10/17/nearly-half-the-  
world-lives-on-less-than-550-a-day  
A
002  
1
The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
70  
60  
50  
40  
30  
20  
10  
0
Year  
Figure 1-1 Proportion of the Population Living in Extreme Poverty in Sub-Saharan AfricaA  
Natural resources are quickly being depleted. As human demand for natural resources  
exceeds the carrying capacity of the earth, resource scarcity and depletion become  
ever more acute. Global consumption of raw materials has risen by 114%—from 43Gt in  
1990 to 92Gt in 2017—and is expected to reach 190Gt in 2060. Various metal reserves  
are on the brink of depletion. Gold, platinum, silver, copper, lead, lithium, antimony,  
niobium, tantalum, indium and strontium reserves will all be exhausted within 20 years.  
The mining life of dozens of minerals including zinc, nickel, tin, manganese, cobalt,  
tungsten, cadmium, bismuth, chromium and molybdenum is less than 50 yearsA. Beyond  
that, the fossil fuels situation is also grim. At the current rate of development, global stores  
of coal, oil, and natural gas will be exhausted within 132 years, 50 years, and 50 years  
respectively[2], as shown in Table 1-1. Yet global demand for energy is still rising, such that  
fossil fuels will run out at an even faster rate if nothing is done to alter the current structure  
of energy consumption.  
Table 1-1 Reserve and Reserve-Production Ratio of Main Fossil Fuels[2]  
Variety  
Coal  
Reserve  
1069.6Gt  
Reserve-Production Ratio (Year)  
132  
50  
Oil  
244.6Gt  
Natural Gas  
199 trillion m3  
50  
Source: The World Bank https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?end=2015&start=1981&vie  
w=chart  
A
003  
Towards Sustainable Development  
The world lacks momentum for economic growth. Since the 2008 financial crisis, most  
countries have maintained a loose stance in monetary and fiscal policy, and the world  
has experienced a long period of recovery growth. But as the policy space for stimulus  
is dwindling, and unilateralism and protectionism are resurfacing, the global economic  
situation is further deteriorating. Growth rates in global GDP and goods & services exports  
fell respectively from 4.3% and 11.6% in 2010 to 2.5% and 1.5% in 2019, as shown in  
Figure 1-2. In 2020, the sudden outbreak of COVID-19 dealt a massive blow to the world  
economy. According to World Bank predictions, the world economy will shrink by 5.2% in  
2020, constituting the worst economic recession since World War II [4]  
.
5.00  
12.00  
10.00  
8.00  
6.00  
4.00  
2.00  
0.00  
11.56  
4.50  
4.00  
4.30  
3.26  
3.50  
3.14  
3.10  
4.27  
2.85  
2.88  
3.00  
2.50  
2.00  
1.50  
1.00  
0.50  
0.00  
6.57  
2.66  
2.59  
2.52  
2.81  
5.09  
2.47  
3.61  
3.46  
2.79  
2.68  
1.46  
2010  
2011  
2012  
2013  
2014  
2015  
2016  
2017  
2018  
2019  
Year  
Annual Growth Rate of the  
World GDP  
Annual Growth Rate of the World  
Trade in Goods and Services  
Figure 1-2 Growth Rates for Global GDP and Trade Volume, 2010-2019[3]  
1.1.2 Sustainable Social Development  
Inequality and uneven development are acute—levels of development varying  
tremendously, both country to country and region to region. While he GDP per capita  
in North America and Europe is more than USD 60,000, many African countries have a  
GDP per capita of less than USD 1000. The top ten and bottom ten countries in GDP per  
capita is shown in Table 1-2. There is an obvious economic chasm separating different  
countries and regions; consequentially there are also major gaps in people’s living  
standards, education levels, social inclusion, and other aspects. In education, for example,  
84% of children in Sub-Saharan Africa fail to meet standards in reading and math—six times  
higher than the failure rate in Europe and North America. Income disparity persists in many  
countries. Even within developed countries, there is a large disparity between different  
groups and regions. For example, the United States’ Gini coefficient rose from 0.346 in 1980  
to 0.415 in 2016A; even though the wealthiest strata of society only accounts for 1% of the total  
population, they possess nearly 40% of the total wealth. Gender discrimination and inequality  
remain pervasive around the globe. In many parts of the world, women still cannot enjoy equal  
access to education. In 2017, the proportions of girls and boys out of school in Central Asia, Sub-  
Source: The World Bank https://data.worldbank.org.cn/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=US.  
A
004  
1
The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Saharan and North Africa, and West Asia were 1.27, 1.21, and 1.12, respectively [1]. Globally,  
the median wage of women is about 12% less than men per hour, and the average time  
spent engaged in unpaid domestic chores is three times greater for women than men.  
Table 1-2 The Top Ten and Bottom Ten Countries in GDP Per Capita RankingA  
Top ten countries in the GDP per capita  
Bottom ten countries in the GDP per capita  
Country  
Luxembourg  
Switzerland  
Ireland  
GDP per capita (USD)  
114705  
81994  
Country  
Niger  
GDP per capita (USD)  
555  
545  
522  
504  
502  
492  
468  
442  
412  
261  
DR Congo  
78661  
Madagascar  
Sierra Leone  
Afghanistan  
Mozambique  
Central African Republic  
Sudan  
Norway  
75420  
Iceland  
66945  
Singapore  
USA  
65233  
65118  
Qatar  
64782  
Denmark  
Australia  
59822  
Malawi  
54907  
Burundi  
Conflict and violence escalate social unrest and insecurity. Since the end of World  
War II, regional wars and armed conflicts have continued to break out; geopolitical hotspots  
have emerged in succession, posing serious threats to international peace and security. In  
2018, 52 armed conflicts broke out in 36 countries. As shown in Figure 1-3, this constitutes the  
highest number of conflicts since World War II. In the past 20 years, the September 11 attacks,  
the Afghan War, the Iraq War, and the Arab Spring erupted one after another; as of today,  
the Syrian Civil War remains ongoing. At present, there are more than 70 million refugees  
scattered across the world, establishing a new high since World War II and exerting serious  
impacts on social stability in Europe, Asia, and many countries all around the world.  
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&YUSBTZTUFNJDꢀDPOGMJDU  
*OUꢁꢀJOUFSOBMꢀDPOGMJDU  
Figure 1-3 Number of Armed Conflicts Worldwide, 1946-2018[5]  
Source: The World Bank https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD.  
A
005  
Towards Sustainable Development  
90  
80  
70  
60  
50  
40  
30  
20  
10  
0
Year  
Figure 1-4 Statistics of Global Refugee PopulationA  
Health issues limit sustainable social development. In 2018, more than 820 million  
people worldwide suffered from shortages of food or severe hunger, accounting for  
11% of the total global population [6]—most of them distributed across Asia, Africa, Latin  
America and the Caribbean. Poor health care conditions have led to the prevalence of  
infectious diseases in low-income countries. For every 10,000 people in these regions,  
more than 300 die from respiratory infections, AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis or other  
infectious diseases, making these the main causes of death in these countries, as shown  
in Figure 1-5. In 2020, more than 70 million people have been infected with COVID-19 so  
far, and more than 1,600,000 have died. This virus not only poses a huge threat to public  
health around the world; it also has far-reaching impacts on the human society. This global  
outbreak has accelerated tremendous changes not seen in the past century.  
Source: The UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR). https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/.  
A
006  
1
The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
80  
70  
60  
50  
40  
30  
20  
10  
0
Infectious Diseases, Maternal and  
Neonatal Conditions, Nutritional Status  
Noninfectious Diseases  
Injuries  
Figure 1-5 Main Causes of Death in Low-income Countries, 2016A  
1.1.3 Sustainable Environmental Development  
The climate change situation is extremely grim. In the 800,000 years before the  
industrial revolution, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere  
fluctuated cyclically, and did not exceed 300 ppm at the highest pointB. This however has  
been spiraling up rapidly since 1850, with the global average concentration of carbon  
dioxide reaching 409.8ppm in 2019, as shown in Figure 1-6. At the same time, the global  
temperature is also on the rise. The global average temperature from 2015 to 2019 has  
increased by about 1.1°C compared to the pre-industrial level, as shown in Figure 1-7. [7]  
Due to global warming, terrestrial and marine systems have been completely thrown out  
of kilter, bringing about glacial melting, rising sea levels, weather extremes and climate  
disasters. From 1970 to 2018, the insurance losses caused by global disasters showed  
a significant upward trend. In 2018, the global disaster insurance losses amounted to  
US$85 billion, of which weather and climate-related disaster losses accounted for about  
90%, as shown in Figure 1-8.  
Source of information: http:www.who.int/zh/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death.  
ppm refers to parts per million.  
A
B
007  
Towards Sustainable Development  
500  
400  
300  
200  
409.8 ppm in 2019  
100  
0
-800000  
-700000  
-600000  
-500000  
-400000  
-300000  
-200000  
-100000  
0
Year (minus sign for year BC)  
Figure 1-6 Changes in Global Atmospheric CO2 Concentration Since 800,000 BCA  
1.3  
1.1  
0.9  
0.7  
0.5  
0.3  
0.1  
-0.1  
-0.3  
1850  
1870  
1890  
1910  
1930  
1950  
1970  
1990  
2010  
2030  
Year  
HadCRUT.4.6.0.0  
NOAAGlobalTemp  
GISTEMP  
ERA-Interim  
JRA-55  
Figure 1-7 Changes in Global Average TemperatureB  
Source: Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions.  
A
B
Source: GEIDCO, IIASA, WMO. Research Report on Global Energy Interconnection for Addressing  
Climate Change.  
008  
1
The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
160  
140  
120  
100  
80  
Casualty Insurance Losses  
from 1970 to 2018  
(USD 1 billion at 2018 prices)  
9
7
5
1. Hurricane Andrew  
2. Winter Storm Lotta  
10  
8
3. World Trade Center terrorist attack  
4. Hurricanes Ivan, Charlie, Francis  
5. Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, Wilma  
6. Hurricanes Ike, Gustav  
7. Earthquakes in Japan, New Zealand,  
floods in Thailand  
4
6
3
2
60  
1
40  
20  
8. Hurricane Sandy  
9. Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, Maria  
10. Camp fire, Super Typhoon Jebi  
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015  
Earthquakes/tsunamis Weather-related disasters Human-made disasters  
Figure 1-8 Global insured catastrophe losses,1970–2018A  
According to the fifth assessment report of the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate  
Change (IPCC), if the current path for carbon emissions is followed without quickening the  
adoption of more effective measures, by the end of the century: global warming will have  
exceeded 3°C, perhaps even reaching 7°C to 10°C under extreme scenarios; the number  
of high-temperature accidents will at least treble; the likelihood of drought and flood will  
increase tenfold; harvests of staple crops such as corn and rice will sharply decrease;  
glacier mass may be reduced by nearly 70%; and many coastal cities will be partially or  
completely submerged as sea levels rise sharply, leaving hundreds of millions of people  
permanently homeless. In addition to the abovementioned, predictable consequences,  
a sharp rise in temperature will also trigger a “domino effect” in the global ecosystem  
causing a proliferation of unpredictable disasters.  
Environmental pollution poses a serious threat to human survival. In terms of air  
pollution, emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, inhalable particulates, ozone and  
other pollutants have gone beyond the environment’s carrying capacity, giving rise to air  
pollution. The air quality in most parts of the world fails to meet WHO standards—to cite  
some figures, nine out of ten people live in areas where the air pollution exceeds standard  
[8]  
levelsB, and about 7 million people die from air pollution  
every year, accounting for  
1/9 of total global mortality. According to WHO estimates, adult deaths from air pollution-  
induced heart disease account for 24% of all adult deaths from heart disease; adult  
deaths from air pollution-induced strokes account for 25% of total adult deaths from  
stroke; adult deaths from air pollution-induced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease  
account for 43% of total adult deaths from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; and  
adult deaths from air pollution-induced lung cancer account for 29% of total adult deaths  
from lung cancer. Other major issues caused by air pollution like acid rain, haze, and  
eutrophication have mounted a huge challenge to economic growth and food security.  
Table 1-3 shows the top ten and bottom ten countries in the average annual concentration  
of inhalable particulate matter (PM2.5) in 2019.  
Source: Swiss Re Institute.sigma 2/2019.  
A
B
Source: The World Health Organization http://www.who.int/air pollution, refers to higher than the  
standards set by the WHO Air Quality Guidelines.  
009  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Table 1-3 The Top Ten and Bottom Ten Countries in the Annual Average  
Concentration of PM2.5 in 2019A  
Top ten countries in annual average  
Bottom ten countries in annual average  
PM2.5 concentration  
PM2.5 concentration  
Annual average concentration  
(μg/m3)  
Annual average concentration  
Country  
Country  
(μg/m3)  
Bangladesh  
Pakistan  
Mongolia  
Afghanistan  
India  
83.30  
65.81  
62.00  
58.80  
58.08  
51.71  
46.80  
44.46  
41.20  
39.60  
Ecuador  
Australia  
Canada  
8.60  
8.00  
7.72  
7.52  
6.88  
6.63  
6,15  
5.63  
5.55  
3.30  
New Zealand  
Norway  
Indonesia  
Bahrain  
Sweden  
Estonia  
Nepal  
Finland  
Uzbekistan  
Iraq  
Iceland  
Bahamas  
In terms of freshwater and soil pollution, most rivers in the world exhibit a deteriorating  
water quality, as more than 80% of wastewater is discharged directly without treatment [9]  
.
Around the world, approximately 485,000 people die every year from drinking  
contaminated waterB. According to a FAO study [10], seven spoons of metallic lead can  
contaminate one hectare of land or 200,000m3 of water, and it takes about 300 years to  
regenerate one centimetre’s thickness of soil on the earth's surface. The world currently  
produces more than 2Gt of waste per year, and 85% of municipal waste is disposed of in  
landfills, resulting in unimaginable soil pollution. In terms of marine pollution, pollutants  
such as oil, nitrogen, phosphorus and plastic in the ocean have changed seawater’s pH  
value, salinity, transparency and other properties, dealing significant damage to marine  
ecology. From 1970 to 2019, the total amount of oil spilled from oil tankers worldwide was  
about 5.86 Mt, as shown in Figure 1-9, while at least 8Mt of plastic is dumped into the  
oceans every year. From 1970 to 2000, anthropogenic emissions brought about a rise of  
10% to 80% in concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in offshore areas around the  
world. Eutrophication and oxygen depletion in the oceans has caused the deaths of a  
large number of marine organisms—particularly in the Bay of Bengal, East China Sea,  
South China Sea, Tokyo Bay and New York Bay[9].  
Source: IQAir https://www.iqair.com/world-most-polluted-countries.  
A
B
The World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/zh/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water.  
010  
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700  
600  
500  
400  
300  
200  
100  
0
7000  
6000  
5000  
4000  
3000  
2000  
1000  
0
Year  
Annual spill  
Cumulative spill  
Figure 1-9 Global Oil Spills from Tankers from 1970 to 2019A  
Environmental degradation is ever more threatening. In terms of land degradation,  
50% to 70% of the world’s natural wetlands have disappeared over the past 100 years;  
in fact, from 2000 to 2015, 20% of all terrestrial area in the world has been degraded.  
Desertification has expanded to 36 million km2, accounting for one quarter of the total  
land area, and is growing at a rate of 60,000 km2 per year, affecting about 1 billion people  
in more than 100 countries. In terms of forest degradation, global forest area decreased  
by 56 million hectares from 2000 to 2015, equivalent to the entire land area of France, of  
which tropical rain forest suffer the most, as shown in Figure 1-10. The Amazon Rainforest  
has suffered particularly severe damage, with an area disappearing each month  
equivalent to about 5000 Vatican Cities. In terms of freshwater resources, the global  
rate of water consumption has grown at twice the rate of population growth in the past  
century. Two billion people in the world now live in countries with serious water shortages,  
and half of the world population experiences a severe shortage of water for at least one  
month of every year. In terms of biodiversity, from 1970 to 2012, the population of  
terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species decreased by 38%, 81% and 36% respectively;  
the global wildlife population has been reduced by 58% on the whole. At least one million  
species of plants and animals are currently facing risk of extinction[11]. As a result of rising  
sea temperatures and acidification, 20% of the world’s coral reefs have been permanently  
lost and 70% are seriously endangeredB. Two-thirds of the coral reefs in Australia’s Great  
Barrier Reef—which is hailed as a natural wonder—have died or been bleached.  
Source: ITOPF. 2019 Oil tanker spill statistics.  
A
B
Source: The United Nations. https://www.un.org/zh/chronicle/article/20669.  
011  
Towards Sustainable Development  
4140  
4120  
4100  
4080  
4060  
4040  
4020  
4000  
3980  
3960  
3940  
3920  
1990  
2000  
2005  
Year  
2010  
2015  
Figure 1-10 Changes in Global Forest Area from 1990 to 2015A  
1.2 The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Human consideration on issues concerning development and nature is nothing new.  
In 1873, Engels wrote in the Dialectics of Nature: “Let us not, however, flatter ourselves  
overmuch on account of our human victories over nature. For each such victory nature  
takes its revenge on us.” A century later, as nature now mercilessly wreaks its vengeance  
upon humankind, we begin to understand Engels’s statement. As industrialization  
expands all over the world, sustainable development has become a major concern shared  
by all countries. Human existence and development are swamped in economic, social,  
and environmental crises. Their resolution will require all countries acting in concert, with  
great determination and great effort, and by more effective means and measures, to  
secure the continuity of human society and for the benefit of future generations.  
Source: FAO. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4793c.pdf.  
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1.2.1 The History of Sustainable Development  
Since the 1950s, there has been an endless stream of incidents resulting from ecological  
damage, of both local and global consequence. For example, in December 1952, 4000  
people died over five days in London as a result of waste gas emitted by factories and  
coal smoke from households. Approximately 8000 more died from respiratory diseases  
within the two months that followed. This incident directly prompted formulation of the  
Clean Air Act 1956 in the United Kingdom. In 1956, a Japanese factory discharged  
wastewater containing methylmercury directly into the Minamata Bay, causing people  
there to suffer from extremely painful mercury poisoning after eating contaminated fish  
and shellfish. Nearly 1000 people were poisoned and the lives of 20,000 put at risk. In  
1986, the Soviet Union experienced the worst nuclear power accident in history—the  
Chernobyl nuclear disaster—which released 400 times more radioactivity than the atomic  
bomb dropped over Hiroshima in World War II. Thirty-one people died instantaneously  
and another 170,000 died from complications in the decade that followed; the lifespans of  
3.2 million people were also greatly shortened as a result.  
As the environmental crisis becomes increasingly threatening, humans have started  
to consider the root causes of frequently occurring global environmental problems.  
Upon reflection we have gradually come to recognize the flaws of our existing mode  
of development. As for what development model should be established in its place,  
discussion and research are ongoing to this day. In 1962, marine biologist Rachel  
Carson published the book Silent Spring, which describes environmental pollution and  
ecological destruction caused by the excessive use of chemicals and fertilizers. This  
publication served as a powerful warning for humankind and furthered the cause of global  
environmental protection. In 1972, the Club of RomeA published a report titled Limits to  
Growth, within which the concepts “sustainable growth” and “reasonable and lasting  
balanced development” were clearly put forward for the first time. In June of the same  
year, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in the Swedish  
capital Stockholm and the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human  
Environment was adopted; moreover, June 5 was established as “World Environment  
Day” in an effort to draw global attention to the earth’s situation and the harmful impacts  
of human activities on the environment. This marked the first ever global conference on  
environmental protection. In 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature  
(IUCN), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World Wildlife  
Fund (WWF) jointly published the World Conservation Strategy, calling on international  
organizations, sectors of government, enterprises, institutions and other parties to conduct  
in-depth research on the relationship between nature, society, ecology, and economy and  
to promote sustainable development. In 1981, environmentalist Lester Brown published  
Building a Sustainable Society, which proposes to achieve sustainable development by  
controlling population growth, protecting natural resources, and developing renewable  
energy. In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)  
published the Our Common Future report, advocating “development that meets the needs  
The Club of Rome, founded in April 1968, is an international civil academic society dedicated to future  
studies.  
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of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own  
needs”. This report systematically elaborated the concept and connotations of sustainable  
development for the first time, effecting a broad response.  
Since the 1990s, and under the promotion of the United Nations, the issue of sustainable  
development has been thrown into sharper relief in the global political agenda. In June  
1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) was  
held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Therein, the international community adopted and signed  
a series of documents such as the Rio Declaration, the Agenda 21, the United Nations  
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), marking that international  
theoretic exploration on environmental protection and sustainable development had  
begun to translate into concrete global collaboration and action. In December 1997, the  
United States Climate Change Conference adopted the Kyoto Protocol, which stipulates  
ceilings for the greenhouse gas emissions of major developed countries by 2012. The  
Kyoto Protocol was the first agreement in the world to mandate reductions in greenhouse  
gas emissions. In September 2000, the 55th Session of the General Assembly of the  
United Nations adopted the UN Millennium Declaration, which sets out eight Millennium  
Development Goals (MDGs) and urges all countries to achieve these by 2015. The eight  
MDGs include eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, guaranteed environmental  
sustainability, and the establishment of a global development cooperation. Over the 15  
years since the implementation of the UN Millennium Declaration, humanity has made  
[12]  
remarkable achievements in the implementation of the various development goals  
.
For example, from 1999 to 2015, the number of people living in extreme poverty worldwide  
dropped from 1.75 billion to 836 million; from 2000 to 2015, the number of school-age children  
out of school decreased from 100 million to 57 million; and 147 countries accomplished  
specific targets such as for drinking water. Nevertheless, the progress of implementation  
varies greatly country to country and region to region. There is still a long way to go to realize  
Sustainable Development Goals(SDG) on the whole. The formulation and implementation of  
MDGs have proved the feasibility and effectiveness of advancing sustainable development  
in the world under the auspices of the UN, and have accumulated rich experience for the  
formulation of new post-2015 development goals, which is of great significance.  
1.2.2 Proposals of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
The year 2015 marked the seventieth anniversary of the founding of the UN. In September  
2015, the UN Sustainable Development Summit was held at their headquarters in  
New York. More than 150 world leaders gathered in the UN General Assembly Hall  
to adopt a new agenda for promoting world peace and prosperity while advancing  
sustainable human development—namely, Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda  
for Sustainable Development (hereinafter referred to as the 2030 Agenda). This agenda  
sets out goals for sustainable human development from 2015 to 2030, identifying 17  
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Specifically, the 17 SDGs (shown in Table 1-4)  
are divided into 169 associated targets. The 2030 Agenda encourages all countries to  
act in collaboration to drive economic growth while addressing issues such as poverty,  
education, health and social equality, climate change mitigation, and environmental  
protection, and pledges that no one will be left behind as we create an inclusive and  
sustainable future together.  
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Table 1-4 Sustainable Development Goals in the 2030 Agenda  
SDG  
Associated  
Targets  
SDG 1  
No Poverty  
End poverty in all its forms everywhere  
7
8
SDG 2  
Zero Hunger  
End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition  
and promote sustainable agriculture  
SDG 3  
Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all  
13  
10  
9
Good Health and Well-being ages  
SDG 4  
Quality Education  
Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and  
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all  
SDG 5  
Gender Equality  
Achieve gender equality and empower all women and  
girls  
SDG 6  
Ensure availability and sustainable management of water  
and sanitation for all  
8
Clean Water and Sanitation  
SDG 7  
Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and  
5
Affordable and Clean Energy modern energy for all  
SDG 8  
Decent Work and Economic  
Growth  
Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic  
growth, full and productive employment and decent work  
for all  
12  
SDG 9  
Industry, Innovation and  
Infrastructure  
Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and  
sustainable industrialization and foster innovation  
8
SDG 10  
Reduced Inequalities  
Reduce inequality within and among countries  
10  
10  
SDG 11  
Sustainable Cities and  
Communities  
Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,  
resilient and sustainable  
SDG 12  
Responsible Consumption  
and Production  
Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns  
11  
SDG 13  
Climate Action  
Take urgent action to combat climate change and its  
impacts  
5
SDG 14  
Life below Water  
Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and  
marine resources for sustainable development  
10  
Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial  
ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat  
desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation  
and halt biodiversity loss  
SDG 15  
Life on Land  
12  
SDG 16  
Peace, Justice and Strong  
Institutions  
Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable  
development, provide access to justice for all and build  
effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels  
12  
19  
SDG 17  
Partnerships for the Goals  
Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize  
the global partnership for sustainable development  
015  
Towards Sustainable Development  
The 2030 Agenda is a guide for countries worldwide on the joint promotion of sustainable  
development from now until 2030, and drafts a blueprint for a better human future. The 17  
SDGs put forward in the 2030 Agenda are interrelated, constituting an organic whole that  
can be divided into three main levels—economy, society, and environment (as shown in  
Figure 1-11).  
Focus is on transforming unsustainable production and  
“high-input, high-consumption, high-pollution” modes of  
consumption, promoting low-carbon production and civilized  
consumption, improving economic efficiency, conserving  
resources, and reducing pollutant emissions.  
At the  
economic  
level  
1
2
3
Focus is primarily on ending all forms of poverty, improving  
the quality of human life, improving health and education, and  
creating a free, equal, and harmonious society.  
At the  
social level  
Focus is on reducing ecological damage caused by human  
activities, acquiring and using natural resources in a  
environmental sustainable way, protecting the earth’s ecosystems while  
At the  
level  
advancing development, and realizing the coordination of  
environment with economic and social development.  
Sustainable  
Development  
Goals  
Social Inclusion  
Figure 1-11 The 2030 Agenda’s 17 SDGs CategorizedA  
Source: Logos of the SDGs come from the UN website.  
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1.2.3 The 2030 Agenda: Progress and Reflection  
Since the launch of the 2030 Agenda in 2015, the UN has encouraged countries  
worldwide to put the SDGs in place, as shown in Figure 1-12. The United Nations  
High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF), formerly known as  
the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), is the UN’s main platform for  
promoting the 2030 Agenda. The HLPF’s main responsibilities are to lead and guide  
the process of sustainable development, and to follow up on and review the progress  
of SDG implementation, offering advice accordingly. Since 2015, under the framework  
of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) and the United Nations Economic and  
Social Council (ECOSOC), the HLPF has held six meetings, released a series of achievement  
reports (such as yearly reports the 17 SDGs progress), examined 142 countries’ progress  
implementing the 2030 Agenda, and provided financial, technical and personnel support to  
member states to promote global sustainable development. The themes of its six meetings  
have been: “Strengthening integration, implementation and review”, “Ensuring that no one is left  
behind”, “Eradicating poverty and promoting prosperity in a changing world”, “Transformation  
towards sustainable and resilient societies”, “Empowering people and ensuring inclusiveness  
and equality”, and “Realizing the decade of action and delivery for sustainable development”.  
Moreover, the UN has encouraged and guided governments, enterprises, institutions, people  
and other parties to jointly promote sustainable development all over the world in specific  
areas such as security, climate, the environment, cities, health, and gender equality.  
In terms of peace and security, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) adopted  
the landmark resolution 2282 (2016) in 2016, establishing a new cooperation framework  
for world peace and calling for the close attention and strong support of the UN,  
governments, international, regional and sub-regional organizations, international financial  
institutions, and other stakeholders.  
In terms of climate change, the United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris  
in December 2015 adopted the Paris Agreement, making arrangements for global action  
on climate change after 2020. In 2018, about 200 countries participated in the COP 24  
Katowice in Poland to discuss details of implementation for the Paris Agreement and work  
out accounting mechanisms for greenhouse gas emissions and national emissions mitigation  
measures. At the UN Climate Change Summit 2019, UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres  
proposed six major actions—including accelerating climate financing, expediting the energy  
transition, and promoting industrial transformation—and urged all countries to increase  
their National Determined Contributions (NDCs) by 2020, reduce their greenhouse gas  
emissions by 45% in the next decade, and achieve net zero emissions by 2050.  
In terms of environmental governance, the 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference  
adopted the declaration Our Ocean, Our Future: Call for Action, which explicitly requires  
all countries to completely stop using plastic bags and disposable plastics. The Fourth  
Session of the UN Environment Assembly held in 2019 achieved fruitful results. It passed  
a series of resolutions on environmental governance (as shown in Table 1-5), and  
released the Global Environment Outlook report, calling on countries to address pressing  
environmental issues by adopting more sustainable consumption and production patterns.  
017  
Towards Sustainable Development  
2019 UN High-level Political Forum on  
UN Climate Action Summit  
To meet the urgent need to address climate change and  
achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement, a Summit is  
convened to raise ambition and increase climate action  
Sustainable Development  
The theme is “Empowering people and ensuring  
inclusiveness and equality”, and Goal 4, Goal 8, Goal 10,  
Goal 13, Goal 16 and Goal 17 are reviewed in depth  
2018 UN High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development  
The theme is “Transformation towards sustainable and resilient societies”, and Goal 6, Goal 7, Goal  
11, Goal 12, Goal 15 and Goal 17 are reviewed in depth to further advance sustainable development  
Refugees  
Global Compact on Refugees  
Action for Peacemaking  
Declaration of Shared Commitments on  
UN Peacekeeping Operations  
Youth, Peace and Security  
UN Security Council Resolution  
2419 (2018) is based on  
Resolution 2250 (2015)  
2019  
2017 UN High-level Political  
Forum on Sustainable  
Development  
The theme is “Eradicating poverty  
and promoting prosperity in a  
2030 Agenda and Agenda 2063  
changing world” and Goal 1, Goal  
Framework for a Renewed United Nations-Afri-  
2, Goal 3, Goal 5, Goal 9, Goal 14  
can Union Partnership on Africa’s Integration  
and Goal 17 are reviewed in depth  
and Development Agenda 2017-2027 to  
support the African Union’s Agenda 2063: The  
Africa We Want  
to accelerate action of worldwide  
countries  
Ocean Declaration  
Our Oceans, Our Future:  
Call for Action  
2018  
Building and Sustaining  
Peace  
New framework on building and  
sustaining peace adopted by General  
Assembly resolution 70/262 and  
Security Council resolution 2282  
(2016)  
New Urban Agenda  
United Nations  
2016 UN High-level Political Forum  
Conference on  
on Sustainable Development  
The theme is “Ensuring that no one is  
left behind” to build a strong, active  
international society that includes  
disadvantaged and marginalized  
groups  
Housing and Sustain-  
able Urban Develop-  
ment (UN Habitat III  
Conference)  
2017  
2016  
Addis Ababa Action Agenda  
The Third International Conference on  
Development Financing  
Vienna Declaration  
Vienna Programme of Action for Landlocked  
2030 Agenda  
Transforming our World: The  
Developing Countries for the  
Decade 2014-2024  
2030 Agenda for Sustainable  
Development is a blueprint for  
present and future peace and  
prosperity for people and planet  
Sendai Framework  
ꢀ
The Sendai Framework for  
Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030  
Paris Agreement  
ꢀ
Agreement within the  
United Nations Framework  
Convention on Climate Change  
2015  
Figure 1-12 Major UN Advancements of the 2030 Agenda WorldwideA  
Image source: Part of the material comes from the UN Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of  
the Organization (2019).  
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Table1-5 Resolutions adopted on the Fourth Session of the United Nations  
Environment AssemblyA  
Resolution  
4/1  
Title  
Innovative pathways to achieve sustainable consumption and production  
Promoting sustainable practices and innovative solutions for curbing food loss and waste  
(UNEP/EA.4/Res.2)  
4/2  
4/3  
4/4  
Sustainable mobility (UNEP/EA.4/Res.3)  
Addressing environmental challenges through sustainable business practices (UNEP/  
EA.4/Res.4)  
4/5  
4/6  
Sustainable infrastructure (UNEP/EA.4/Res.5)  
Marine plastic litter and microplastics (UNEP/EA.4/Res.6)  
4/7  
Environmentally sound management of waste (UNEP/EA.4/Res.7)  
Sound management of chemicals and waste (UNEP/EA.4/Res.8)  
Addressing single-use plastic products pollution (UNEP/EA.4/Res.9)  
Innovations on biodiversity and land degradation (UNEP/EA.4/Res.10)  
Protection of the marine environment from land-based activities (UNEP/EA.4/Res.11)  
Sustainable management for global health of mangroves (UNEP/EA.4/Res.12)  
Sustainable coral reefs management (UNEP/EA.4/Res.13)  
4/8  
4/9  
4/10  
4/11  
4/12  
4/13  
4/14  
4/15  
4/16  
Sustainable nitrogen management (UNEP/EA.4/Res.14)  
Innovations in rangelands and pastoralism (UNEP/EA.4/Res.15)  
Conservation and sustainable management of peatlands (UNEP/EA.4/Res.16)  
Promoting gender equality and the human rights and empowerment of women and girls  
in environmental governance (UNEP/EA.4/Res.17)  
4/17  
4/18  
4/19  
Poverty-environment nexus (UNEP/EA.4/Res.18)  
Mineral resource governance (UNEP/EA.4/Res.19)  
Fifth Programme for the Development and Periodic Review of Environmental Law  
(Montevideo V): delivering for people and the planet (UNEP/EA.4/Res.20)  
4/20  
4/21  
4/22  
Implementation plan “Towards a pollution-free planet” (UNEP/EA.4/Res.21)  
Implementation and follow-up of United Nations Environment Assembly resolutions  
(UNEP/EA.4/Res.22)  
Keeping the world environment under review: enhancing the United Nations Environment  
Programme science–policy interface and endorsement of the Global Environment  
Outlook (UNEP/EA.4/Res.23)  
4/23  
In terms of urban development, the Third United Nations Conference on Housing  
and Sustainable Urban Development (UN Habitat III Conference) held in 2016 adopted  
the New Urban Agenda. This agenda is not only a strategic also an action document  
Source: Report of the United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme, 4th  
session. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3804941.  
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that helps decision makers at both national and local levels alter modes of urban  
planning, financing, development, governance and management, stressing the leading  
role of governments at all levels and in all countries for promoting sustainable urban  
development, and providing guidance for countries’ long-term urban development.  
In terms of gender equality, the sixtieth session of the United Nations Commission on  
the Status of Women held in 2016 launched a global call to action on gender equality and  
equal pay for work of equal value. In 2018, the UN convened a High-level Panel on Digital  
Cooperation with special emphasis on taking concrete steps to ensure the inclusion of  
women and marginalized groups in a digital society for all.  
In terms of health and sanitation, in 2020 the Seventy-third World Health Assembly was  
held via videoconference from Geneva, Switzerland. Thereupon, the WHO introduced an  
international response to COVID-19 coordinated by and under the leadership of the WHO.  
The plan underscored the need to put public health at the center of development and to  
build a healthier, safer, and fairer world. Hope was expressed that countries around the  
world would to adhere to multilateralism, adopt inclusive economic and social measures,  
and pursue coordinated progress for the containment of COVID-19, recovering the  
economy and protecting human rights.  
Thanks to the concerted efforts of all stakeholders, sustainable development has  
made positive progress in a number of areas. For example, the proportion of the global  
population living in extreme poverty fell from 10% in 2015 to 8.6% in 2018; the proportion  
using safely managed drinking water rose from 61% in 2000 to 71% in 2017; the proportion  
with access to electricity increased from 85.3% in 2014 to 90%; from 2015 to 2018, global  
labor productivity rose by 31%; from 2000 to 2016, global R&D investment jumped from  
USD 739 billion to USD 2 trillion; the area of global marine nature reserves has doubled  
since 2010; and 104 of 220 coastal regions have seen an improvement in coastal water  
quality [1]. In addition, international organizations, local governments, enterprises and the  
scientific community have all taken active parts in promoting sustainable development,  
and the public—the young generation in particular—have grown increasingly aware of  
sustainable development, which lends hope to the realization of SDGs in the next decade.  
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The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Figure 1-13 2030 Agenda ProgressA  
Source: UN Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization (2019).  
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Figure 1-13 2030 Agenda Progress (figure continued)A  
Although by and large progress has been made on the 2030 Agenda, there are huge  
discrepancies between regions. From a general, holistic perspective, meeting the  
SDGs is still confronted with numerous and immense challenges requiring greater, more  
efficacious actions. For example, the pace of poverty eradication is slowing down, with  
6% of the world’s population estimated to remain in extreme poverty by 2030; the number  
of people suffering from hunger has been growing since 2014, especially in Sub-Saharan  
Africa; the number of children and adolescents out of school has not seen a remarkable  
drop since 2010, the figure remaining at 262 million in 2017; the proportion of the global  
population using safely managed drinking water has climbed, but there are still 4 billion  
people all over the world who have difficulty accessing water, especially in North Africa  
and West, Central, and South Asia; 3 billion people worldwide continue to use inefficient  
and highly polluting fuels for cooking and heating, resulting in worse environmental and  
health situations in low- and middle-income countries; progress on the development and  
efficiency rate improvement of global renewable energy lags behind SDG requirements;  
despite a per capita rise in global GDP and labor productivity, global economic growth  
lacks momentum on the whole, with sluggish industrialization in the least developed  
countries; in many countries, a growing percentage of total income goes to the richest  
1%; the consumption of raw materials continues to rapidly rise, especially in East and  
Southeast Asia where economic and population growth remain heavily dependent on raw  
Source: UN Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization (2019).  
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material consumption. In the past 20 years, 20% of the world’s land has been degraded;  
1 million animal and plant species are at risk of extinction; the growth of nature reserves  
for land, freshwater, biodiversity and others has decelerated; and the trend of ecological  
environment deterioration has yet to be fundamentally reversed [1]  
.
Of all the SDGs, the one with the most urgent priority for accelerated action is climate  
change. According to relevant research from the UN, to achieve the goal of limiting global  
warming to 1.5°C within this century, the 2030 global carbon footprint must be cut down  
to half of its 2010 level.[7], as shown in Figure 1-14. Unfortunately, global greenhouse  
gas emissions have been rising over the past five years. In June 2019, the atmospheric  
concentration of CO2 reached 415ppm, and the last five years were the hottest ever  
recorded. As the compounding effects of climate change accelerate, the window left  
for humans to act has shortened to about a decade. If action is not accelerated, global  
warming will exceed 3°C by the end of the century and the consequences will be both  
catastrophic and irreversible. Polar ice will melt in great quantities; sea level rise will  
accelerate; oceans will become excessively acidified; weather extremes and severe  
natural disasters will occur at great frequency; the land will degrade; there will be extreme  
losses in biodiversity; ecological systems will face collapse; humanity will likewise face a  
crisis of survival.  
Obviously, there is a huge gap between the ambitious goals of the 2030 Agenda and  
actual progress. Based on comprehensive observation and analysis of the bottlenecks  
and challenges affecting the satisfactory implementation of the 2030 Agenda, we believe  
that the following factors are most consequential.  
70  
No policy baseline  
60  
Current policy scenario  
Unconditional NDC scenario  
Conditional  
15  
NDC scena1rio3  
50  
GtCO2e  
32  
GtCO2e  
29  
GtCO2e  
Turquoise area shows  
pathways limiting global  
temperature increase to  
below 2˚C by 2100 with  
about 66% chance  
GtCO2e  
2˚C  
range  
Median  
estimate  
40  
30  
20  
Remaining gap  
to stay within  
2˚C limit  
Remaining gap  
to stay within  
1.5˚C limit  
of level  
consistent  
with 2˚C  
40 GtCO2e  
(range 38-45)  
Green area shows pathways  
limiting global temperature  
increase to below 1.5˚C by  
2100 with about 66% chance  
1.5˚C  
range  
Median estimate  
of level consistent  
with 1.5˚C  
24 GtCO2e  
(range 22-30)  
2015  
2020  
Year  
2025  
2030  
Figure 1-14 The Discrepancy between Current NDCs and 2°C & 1.5°C Targets  
023  
Towards Sustainable Development  
First, the agenda lacks a workable, systematic solution. Sustainable development  
is a complicated issue, and the SDGs are not isolated goals, but closely interrelated. If  
measures taken to meet the SDGs are piecemeal and segmented, solutions will inevitably  
be superficial rather than fundamental. Thus a systematic approach is absolutely  
required. Decisive areas for action must be identified through an understanding of the  
logical relationship between SDGs; only then can a set of comprehensive and systematic  
solutions be developed to drive the 2030 Agenda’s holistic execution. This set of solutions  
must be technically and economically feasible and efficient, as well as universal—  
advanceable and replicable in different countries and regions—especially given that the  
2030 Agenda action items are organized in the form of INDCs. Only by this approach can  
more thorough, rapid, and effective global actions be formulated to better implement the  
2030 Agenda.  
Second, the innovation of sustainable development models is required. Promoting  
sustainable development is ultimately embodied in specific projects that require  
substantial and sustained investments. Many developing countries—especially the  
least developed countries, landlocked countries and island countries—face difficulties  
in project financing and start-up, thus severely restricting their capacity to promote  
sustainable development. Resolving this issue requires overall design and innovation in  
development models.  
Both national and local realities must be taken into  
consideration in order to maximize advantages and avoid  
points of weakness, finding a development path that can  
ensure coordination between economic/social development  
and environmental protection through cross-field  
coordination, cross-industry integration, and multi-industry  
linkage.  
At the national  
strategic level  
1
Efforts must be made to optimize the business environment,  
strengthen policy support and regulation, and most  
importantly, give a strong push to innovation of business  
models: adopting more efficient financial models and tools,  
decreasing investment risks and increasing investment  
On the project  
implementation  
level  
2
benefits, and making better use of government finances,  
international public funds, and especially private investment  
initiatives.  
024  
1
The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Third, enacting the agenda requires complete mechanisms and platforms for  
international cooperation. The UN plays a pivotal role in advancing the 2030 Agenda,  
but relying on the UN alone is far from enough. To be honest, although mechanisms like  
intergovernmental negotiations and assistance to developing countries have yielded  
some results, the effectiveness of restrictive measures is necessarily limited, as they  
can hardly offer any mutually beneficial scenarios. To carry out the SDGs of the 2030  
Agenda, governments indeed must play a leading role, but the extensive participation  
of enterprises, financial institutions, universities and non-governmental organizations  
is even more important. In this connection, building on the UN-led mechanism for  
intergovernmental cooperation, efforts must be made to expand cooperation platforms,  
extend the scope of cooperation, and especially to strengthen alignment between  
government bodies and non-governmental organizations. To secure effective progress  
towards 2030 Agenda items, we need to actively forge a broader foundation for global  
partnership, synergizing the efforts of global parties through extensive consultation, joint  
contribution, and shared benefits.  
025  
Towards Sustainable Development  
References  
[1] The United Nations. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2019 [R]. 2019.  
[2] British Petroleum. Statistical Review of World Energy 2020 [R]. 2020.  
[3] World Bank. World Bank Open Data. 2020.  
[4] World Bank. 2020 Global Economic Prospects [R]. 2020.  
[5] Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO). Trends of Armed Conflicts from 1946 to 2018  
[R]. 2019.  
[6] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of Food  
Security and Nutrition in the World 2019 [R]. 2019.  
[7] GEIDCO. Research Report on Global Energy Interconnection for Addressing Climate  
Change [M]. Beijing: China Electric Power Press, 2019.  
[8] The International Energy Agency. Energy and Air Pollution [R]. 2016.  
[9] The United Nations Environment Program. Towards a Pollution-free Planet Earth [R].  
2017.  
[10] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Soil Pollution: A Hidden  
Reality [R]. 2018.  
[11] World Wildlife Fund. Living Planet Report 2016 [R]. 2016.  
[12] The United Nations. The Millennium Development Goals Report [R]. 2015.  
026  
Global Energy  
2
Interconnection  
Towards Sustainable Development  
In September 2015, the landmark 2030 Agenda for Sustainable  
Development was adopted at the UN Sustainable Development Summit.  
At the September 26 meeting, Chinese President Xi Jinping delivered a  
speech in which he proposed “discussions on establishing GEI, to facilitate  
efforts to meet global power demand with clean and green alternatives” for  
’
the first time. In May 2017 at China s Belt and Road Forum for International  
Cooperation, President Xi once again called for collective action “to  
develop GEI and achieve green and low-carbon development”. The GEI  
’
Initiative stems from China s years of experience in innovative practices in  
’
the energy/power field. China s own energy interconnection—featuring a  
smart grid foundation, UHV grid backbone, and clean energy basis—has  
’
effectively advanced China s low-carbon energy transition, and has played  
’
a key role in the sustainable development of China s economy and society.  
By putting forward the GEI Initiative at such an important global conference  
on sustainable development, President Xi is making an effort to share  
’
China s experience and practices with the world, to put forward a “Chinese  
plan” for joint implementation of the 2030 Agenda.  
The Global Energy Interconnection (GEI) Initiative offers a new path of  
sustainable development for countries all around the world. Specifically,  
it suggests placing emphasis on energy, as energy is also key to  
socioeconomic development. Building GEI will accelerate the transition  
to a green, low-carbon energy system, thereby realizing sustainable  
’
development goals. This chapter begins with an analysis of energy s overall  
’
effect on humanity s sustainable development. Drawing on the research  
and judgment of the law, as well as trends and challenges in global energy  
development, it then expounds in depth upon the value and significance  
of GEI. Next it analyzes and forecasts conditions and routes for GEI  
’
development; finally it introduces China s successful experience in the  
construction of energy interconnection.  
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Global Energy Interconnection  
2.1 Energy’s Overall Effect on Sustainable Development  
Energy is the material basis for human survival and development. The history of human  
progress is also the history of developments in energy. For thousands of years, humankind  
has continually improved its energy utilization abilities. From firewood to coal, to oil  
and gas, and then to electricity—every shift in humans’ dominant energy source has  
brought with it substantial advances in social productivity. In primitive society, humans  
learned to burn firewood for heating, lighting, and cooking; in the mid-18th century, coal  
came to dominate the energy structure, supporting the wide usage of steam engines  
and empowering the establishment and early development of modern industry; in the  
mid-19th century, fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas became the dominant sources of  
energy, and the internal combustion engine was put into extensive use, giving birth to  
our contemporary modern industries; in the late 19th century, the wide application of  
electricity bolstered industry reforms and upgrades allowing the great development of  
informatization; in the 21st century, a new energy revolution based on clean energy like  
wind, PV, and hydro power is gaining momentum and profoundly changing the world. The  
above account proves that the development of energy is intimately tied to the progress of  
human civilization. Energy is involved in every field of sustainable development—whether  
economy, society, or environment. It extensively links all the basic elements of sustainable  
development and profoundly affects human-to-human, human-nature, and individual-  
social relations.  
2.1.1 Energy and Economic Sustainable Development  
Energy production and consumption runs throughout the entire process of all economic  
activities, and play a vital role in guaranteeing and improving economic development and  
productivity.  
First, the energy sector is a crucial component of the economic system. In 2018, the  
global energy sector generated a GDP of USD 4.5 trillion, accounting for 5.2% of global  
GDP, of which the energy investment totaled USD 1.85 trillion. The global trade volume in  
fossil fuels was about USD 2.5 trillion, accounting for one eighthAof the total global trade  
in goods. According to a report issued by the International Renewable Energy Agency  
(IRENA), 58 million people around the world are employed in the energy industry, among  
whom over 11 million are employed in renewable energy—a figure that is growing at a  
rate of 7% per year [1]. As one of the most vital infrastructures in the world, the energy grid  
occupies a dominant position in all countries’ economic development.  
Source: World Trade Organization. https://data.wto.org/.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
Second, energy constitutes a basic guarantee of economic development. From 1990  
to 2017, global primary energy consumption increased by 59%, boosting global GDP by  
111%. In the process of industrialization, countries like Japan and South Korea witnessed  
a higher growth rate in energy consumption than in GDP—that is, the elasticity ratio  
of energy consumption was greater than 1. In the post-industrialization period, energy  
consumption growth has slowed, but at a steady rate. On the other hand, shortages of  
energy seriously confine economic development. For example, the Oil Crisis in 1974  
caused an energy gap of 116Mtce in the United States, decreasing industrial production  
by 14% and GDP by USD 93 billion. Japan’s industrial production fell by more than 20%  
and its GDP by USD 48.5 billion. It is estimated that by 2050, global demand for primary  
energy will increase 30% from 2017 to reach 26Gtce [2], which will only heighten energy’s  
role as guarantor of economic development.  
Third, energy “fuels” a wide range of industries. In terms of industrial development,  
energy has a clear driving effect on the development of related upstream and downstream  
industries—such as chemical engineering, steel, metallurgy, transport, construction,  
machinery and materials. Taking the steel industry as an example: in the 1950s, an  
abundant supply of inexpensive coal and oil in the international market stimulated the  
expansion of a global steel industry; from 1950 to 1974, the number of countries with a  
steel output exceeding 10 million tonnes increased from 4 to 16, and the global annual  
output of steel soared from 189 million to 626 million tonnes. Regionally, energy base  
construction intensely stimulates economic development. Composite industrial bases  
with energy as their central business—such as in Appalachia of the USA, Kuzbass of  
the former Soviet Union, Ruhr of Germany, and Daqing of China—have contributed to  
the economic development of their regions, their countries, and even the world. From  
the perspective of model innovation, the cross-border integration of energy technology  
and information, communication, control, and material technologies gives rise to new  
industries, new models, and new businesses, creating new points of economic growth.  
2.1.2 Energy and Social Sustainable Development  
Beyond progressing social productivity, energy also significantly advances the formation  
and development of relations of production, exerting a great impact on social forms,  
structures, and models of operation.  
First, energy is a key element in the development and transformation of the social  
system. From primitive society, slave society, and feudal society to capitalist society  
and socialist society, humanity has continuously relied on energy to improve its ability  
to transform nature; energy is a major driver of social change. Therefore, the process of  
energy development and transition will inevitably revitalize and optimize the entire macro-  
social system, including social structures, institutions, and relations. In this sense, energy  
has a profound effect on a wide range of deep social phenomena—from ideological  
cognition to social equity, the wealth gap, and medical education.  
Second, energy occupies a key position in the international order. The world’s  
geopolitical structure has long been tied to energy, especially oil, and energy security has  
been a core concern for all countries. Since the 1970s, many wars have stemmed from  
030  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
disputes over rights to extract, transport, and price energy resources. In recent years,  
although energy commercialization and marketization have ratcheted up, the political,  
military, and diplomatic conflicts triggered by energy resource games are still important  
factors affecting the international order. Such major oil-producing areas as the Middle  
East, North Africa, and South America remain plagued by political unrest. In short, energy  
has a bearing on world peace and the security of all countries and plays a pivotal role in  
global governance. Promoting international coordination on development to achieve an  
adequate energy supply is of the utmost importance if we are to advance world peace  
and stability and build a harmonious international environment.  
2.1.3 Energy and Environmental Sustainable Development  
The human social system obtains energy from the earth’s ecosystem, then discharges  
waste in such forms as CO2, wastewater, residue, and garbage back into the ecosystem  
after consumption. Waste has a direct and significant impact on the ecosystem, as is  
shown in Figure 2-1. Ecological and environmental issues have put severe limits on the  
sustainable development of humankind.  
Waste  
Human social system  
Ecosystem  
Energy  
Food Air  
Water  
Resource  
Figure 2-1 Relationship between Human Society and the Environment  
First, the large-scale use of fossil fuels is the root cause of global climate change.  
Carbon dioxide emitted in the burning of fossil fuels accounts for about two-thirds of total  
greenhouse gas emissions, as shown in Figure 2-2. In terms of sectors, electricity and  
transport generate the largest volume of CO2, in 2018 respectively accounting for 42%  
and 23% of total CO2 emissions. In terms of energy types, the carbon emission factor of  
coal is higher than that of oil and natural gas. Specifically, the combustion of 1tce of coal,  
oil, or natural gas respectively produces 2.77 tonnes, 2.15 tonnes, or 1.65 tonnes of CO2.  
In 2018, coal consumption accounted for 29% of the global primary energy consumption,  
while coal-related CO2 emissions accounted for up to 46% of the total. An IPCC report  
[3]  
shows  
that to keep the global rise in temperature within 2℃, cumulative global CO2  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
emissions from 2018 to 2100 should be controlled to 1.2 trillion to 1.5 trillion tonnes—  
or 420 billion to 580 billion tonnes if the rise in temperature is to be kept within 1.5°C.  
Undoubtedly, the energy sector will bear the majority of the burden to reduce emissions.  
Figure 2-2 Composition of Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions  
Second, energy is the key cause of global environmental problems. In the development,  
processing, conversion, transportation and usage of fossil fuels, a large amount of  
waste (gas, water, and residue) is generated. This waste exceeds the carrying capacity  
of environment, causing damage to the atmosphere, land, freshwater bodies, oceans,  
forests, biological and other ecosystems. Among global air pollutants, more than 90% of  
SO2 and NOx, and 85% of PM 2.5, all come from fossil fuel combustion in such sectors as  
[4]  
power, industry and transport, as well as the inefficient use of some biomass energy  
.
The exploitation of oil, natural gas, and coal leads to surface collapse and serious soil  
erosion. In some areas, for every 10,000 tonnes of coal mined, about 3000 m2 of land  
may collapse [5]. In 2013, the annual water consumption of coal-fired power plants in  
operation reached 19 billion m3, exceeding the amount of water annually consumed  
by 1 billion people [6]. From 1970 to 2016, oil spilled from tankers worldwide adds up to  
about 5.73 million tonnesA. A total of 3.2 million barrels of oil leaked in the 2010 Gulf of  
Mexico Oil Spill alone, polluting at least 2500 km2 of ocean. Energy-related environmental  
problems such as the greenhouse effect, air pollution, and water pollution exacerbate  
other environmental problems such as forest destruction, reduced grain outputs, and  
loss of biodiversity. The above data and analysis demonstrate energy’s fundamental  
and comprehensive impact on the environment. Without a radical change in the way we  
develop and utilize energy, substantively addressing the global ecological environment  
problem remains out of the question.  
Source: ITOPF. https://www.itopf.org/.  
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Global Energy Interconnection  
2.2 Accelerating the Energy Transition for Sustainable Development  
Energy plays a decisive role in the sustainable development of humankind. Efforts need to  
be directed towards and center on this crux of energy—accelerating the energy transition,  
building a clean, low-carbon, safe and efficient energy system, and promoting all-round  
breakthroughs for economy, society and environment. We are currently hampered by a  
long-ingrained force of habit and path dependence, making the energy transition seem an  
arduous task far out of reach. This is mainly reflected in the following aspects:  
The scale and speed of clean energy development need to be increased. Global  
energy development generally demonstrates a move towards decarbonization. Coal took  
the place of firewood in the 19th century, then oil and natural gas became dominant and  
the carbon content of the main energy varieties gradually decreased. The core direction  
of energy development shifts from carbon-based energy like coal, oil, and gas to clean  
energy like PV, wind, and hydro power. However, faced with the severity of the current  
climate change situation and the urgency of requirements for sustainable development,  
the scale and speed of clean energy development need to be increased. In terms of  
scale, clean energy currently accounts for about just 20% of primary energy consumption  
worldwide, and the installed capacity of PV, wind, and hydropower accounts for about  
30% of the total. In terms of speed, although the installed capacity of PV and wind power  
[7]  
generation respectively increased by 396 times and 32 times between 2000 and 2018  
,
the annual investment in clean energy would need to reach USD 1 trillion to achieve the  
Paris Agreement’s 2°C target; in 2018, global investment in renewable energy only came  
to USD 330 billion. Newly installed renewable energy generation capacities account for  
approximately 62% of the total [8], unable to fully meet newly increased energy demands.  
“Incremental replacement” remains incomplete and “stock replacement” is even further  
out of reach. To realize clean energy development, there is still a long way to go.  
The electrification of energy urgently requires acceleration. Electricity is a clean and  
economical secondary energy source. All types of primary energy can be converted  
into electricity; likewise, most energy consumption can be achieved with electricity. For  
every kilowatt-hour of electricity used, the economic value generated is equivalent to  
17.3 times that of coal and 3.2 times that of oil. The proportion of electricity in final energy  
[9]  
consumption has steadily risen—increasing from 8.8% in 1971 to 18.9% in 2017  
—
successively surpassing end-use consumption of coal, heat, and natural gas. Studies  
show that for every one-percentage-point increase in the proportion of electricity, energy  
intensity drops by 3.7%. Based on current levels, that is the equivalent of reducing global  
energy consumption by 720Mtce of standard coal, clearly demonstrating electrification’s  
ability to enhance energy efficiency. Many countries and regions are aware of the  
importance of electrification. For example, in the EU Energy Roadmap 2050, the EU is  
poised to reduce total energy demand by 40% by 2050 compared with 2005 levels, while  
increasing power demand by 50% compared with 2010 to 80%. In the Energy Production  
and Consumption Revolution Strategy (2016–2030), China proposes to substantially  
improve the level of final electrification in cities. However, with the exception of individual  
countries, global electrification is still at a low level, and the extensive use of coal, oil and  
natural gas in final energy consumption puts us far from meeting the urgent requirements  
of the green, low-carbon energy transition.  
033  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Energy network need stronger interconnected. In today’s highly economically  
globalized world, “no country is an island” able to tackle the energy problem on its own.  
At present, about 20% of coal, 75% of oil, and 32% of natural gas are distributed across  
national and continental borders [10]; regional interconnected power grids have formed  
in North America, Europe and other regions, transmitting hundreds of gigawatt-hours  
of electricity every day. Energy allocation has developed from point-to-point supply to  
transnational, trans-regional and even global deployment; this is not only an inevitable  
result of economic globalization but an objective trend needed to meet the requirements  
of energy security and economy. With the continued development of clean energy, the  
power system will be the main carrier of global energy allocation, and power trade will be  
the main form of global energy trade, therefore necessitating a globally interconnected  
and efficient power network. However, the current global power system is insufficiently  
interconnected, especially when it comes to the transnational and trans-regional  
interconnection. This deficiency seriously restricts the large-scale development and  
efficient usage of clean energy.  
In short, advancing the global energy transition requires great efforts to be made in  
the abovementioned three aspects—again, increasing the scale and speed of clean  
energy development, increasing electrification levels, and expanding power system  
interconnection. By these means may we realize a comprehensive transformation covering the  
entire process of energy production, consumption, and allocation, promoting the sustainable  
development of human society through a comprehensive reform of energy system.  
034  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
2.3 GEI Accelerates the Global Energy Transition  
As a major, global platform for the large-scale exploitation, transmission, and use of  
clean energy, Global Energy Interconnection consists of “smart grid + UHV grid +  
clean energy”. Its structure is characterized by global interconnection dominated by  
clean energy and with electricity at the center. It is a modern energy system with “Two  
Replacements, One Return, One Increase, and One Conversion” as its development path.  
The overall framework of GEI is shown in Figure 2-3. GEI is a practical and systematic  
solution addressing the major challenges facing energy development that will accelerate  
the energy transition and drive the sustainable development of humankind.  
Mission and Vision  
Developing GEI Promoting sustainable development for  
mankinddevelopment for mankind  
Development Path  
Two Replacements One Increase One Restore One Conversion  
Features  
Clean energy-dominated Electricity-centered Interconnection  
Composition  
Smart grid + UHV grid + clean energy  
Figure 2-3 The Overall Framework of GEI  
GEI develops in line with the concept of “Two Replacements, One Return, One  
Increase, and One Conversion.” Two Replacements refers to replacing fossil fuels  
with clean alternatives (such as PV, wind or hydro power) in energy production, and  
replacing coal, oil, gas, and firewood with clean, distantly-sourced electricity in energy  
consumption. One Increase refers to raising the level of electrification across all society.  
One Return refers to reverting fossil fuels back to their original role as basic industrial raw  
materials rather than fuels to create greater value for economic and social development.  
Studies show that oil is 1.6 times more economically valuable when used as a raw material  
than when used as fuel. Finally, One Conversion refers to using electricity to convert CO2  
and water into fuels and raw materials such as hydrogen, methane, and methanol, thereby  
achieving resource recycling and satisfying the demands of sustainable development.  
The GEI concept epitomizes grand and promising visions for low-carbon social  
development. In this vision, human beings mainly satisfy their production and living needs  
with electricity generated from clean energy sources including PV, wind, and hydro power.  
Coal, oil, and natural gas will no longer be in demand. Many of the raw materials needed  
for industrial production will be manufactured by electricity rather than taken from nature.  
The freshwater that humanity depends on will be made available through electricity-driven  
035  
Towards Sustainable Development  
desalination, definitively resolving the problem of water scarcity. In this way, the energy  
system, ecosystem—indeed, the entire world—will undergo drastic changes, and the  
dream of sustainable development will come true.  
In terms of physical infrastructure, GEI is composed of a “smart grid + UHV grid +  
clean energy”, among which the smart grid is the foundation, the UHV grid is the key,  
and clean energy is the basis (Shown in Figure 2-4). As the three pillars of GEI, the smart  
grid, the UHV grid, and clean energy together constitute the physical GEI system and in  
combination will comprehensively accelerate the energy transition.  
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Figure 2-4 The Physical Components of GEI  
036  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
2.3.1 Clean Energy  
Developing and promoting clean energy as the dominant source and sustainable supply  
of energy for humankind provides a fundamental guarantee for realizing green, low-  
carbon development and is the ultimate goal of the energy transition. Compared with  
finite fossil fuels, clean energy resources are in abundance across the world. According  
to calculations by the Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation  
Organization (GEIDCO), theoretical global reserves of PV, wind, and hydro power exceed  
150,000,000TWh/yr, or 100,000TW in terms of installed capacity. Developing just five ten-  
thousandths of the earth’s clean energy resources would be sufficient to meet human  
energy demands.  
Although the earth is teeming with clean energy reserves in theory, technical and  
economic factors must be taken into account in the development of clean energy.  
PV and wind power development both require resource  
quality to meet certain technical standards. Development  
also needs to keep outside of nature reserves, densely-  
populated cities, farmlands, pastures, and forests.  
In terms of  
As for hydropower development, conditions like flow  
rate, topography and landforms need to be taken into  
consideration. GEIDCO research shows that the exploitable  
installed capacity of PV and wind power are about 2650TW  
and 130TW respectively, far less than the theoretical  
reserves.  
technological  
exploitability  
Clean energy resources vary greatly in quality region to  
region. For example, Saudi Arabia’s PV power has an annual  
GHIA of 2700kWh/m2, while PV GHI in Germany, Russia  
and eastern China generally remains below 1000kWh/m2. In  
Central and South America, Argentina and southern Chile  
both have high-quality wind energy resources with average  
annual wind speeds of up to 14m/s at a height of 100m  
above ground, while western Brazil, southern Venezuela and  
eastern Ecuador have average annual wind speeds of less  
than 5m/s. Such discrepancies in resource endowment are  
a key factor determining discrepancies in the clean energy  
development costs and economic competitiveness. The  
higher quality the resources, the lower the development  
cost per unit capacity, and vice versa. If clean energy is too  
expensive to be economically competitive, it negates the  
rationale for development.  
In terms of  
economic  
exploitability  
Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) is one of the main indicators for evaluating solar energy resources.  
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037  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Therefore, choosing the right locations and development methods are crucial to  
accelerating the development of clean energy. GEI proposes and advocates the following  
methods: centralized development giving priority to the large-scale development of  
centralized PV, wind, and hydro power plants in regions with high-quality resources;  
supported by distributed development that develops PV, wind and hydro power  
in a distributed manner in accordance with local conditions. At present, the global  
development of clean energy is not fast enough to possibly meet the 1.5°C target. The  
main reason is that most investment in global clean energy currently comes from a  
limited supply of government funds. Considering the costs, risks, and income levels, the  
private sector is neither willing nor motivated to invest in clean energy. Statistics show  
that the assets of institutional investors in the developed countries and developing BRIC  
countries—Brazil, Russia, India, and China—amount to USD 96.5 trillion [11], but only a  
very small amount of that is invested in clean energy.  
To tackle this problem, in addition to strengthening the support from policy and financial  
instruments, it is imperative that the economic value and returns on clean energy project  
investments are increased to enhance their economic attractiveness. With the centralized  
development of clean energy, resource quality advantages can be utilized to generate  
a scale effect, minimize development costs, and improve project profitability to pool  
more investment. Importantly, this approach to development can boost market demand,  
which will improve productivity and technical progress, fostering a benign circle of  
“scale expansion -> technological progress -> cost reduction -> investment increase ->  
[12]  
scale expansion” to further accelerate clean energy development. GEIDCO research  
indicates that under the GEI scenario, by 2035, the global installed capacity of PV, wind,  
and hydro power can total 10.8TW, 4.6 times that of 2018, to account for 66% of the total.  
Meanwhile, the LCOEAof PV and wind power will continue to decline, as shown in Figure 2-5.  
250  
35  
200  
150  
100  
50  
30  
25  
20  
15  
10  
5
0
0
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050  
Year  
Onshore wind  
power  
PV power  
generation  
Installed capacity of  
clean energy  
Figure 2-5 Clean Energy Installed Capacity Growth and Cost Reductions under the GEI Scenario  
Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) refers to the present value of cost/generating capacity within the life  
cycle of a project.  
A
038  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
2.3.2 UHV Grid  
Clean energy-generated electricity will need to be delivered to users by power grid. The  
Ultra-High-Voltage (UHV) power grid is mainly composed of 1000 kV AC (or higher) and  
800 kV, 1100 kV DC (or higher) transmission systems, which boast significant  
advantages over Extra-High-Voltage (EHV) transmission including a longer transmission  
distance, larger capacity, higher efficiency, lower line loss, smaller terrestrial footprint,  
and higher security. The comparison is illustrated in Figure 2-6. As the backbone of GEI,  
the UHV grid plays a pivotal role in promoting the development of clean energy and  
accelerating the energy transition.  
AC transmission  
DC transmission  
1500 (10000 kW)  
1100kV  
800kV  
500kV  
1000kV  
500kV  
Transmission  
capacity  
Approx 500 (10000 kW)  
Approx 100 (10000 kW)  
800~1000 (10000 kW)  
300 (10000 kW)  
Approx 6000 (km)  
1100kV  
800kV  
500kV  
Approx 1500 (km)  
Transmission 1000kV  
distance  
Approx 3000 (km)  
Approx 1000 (km)  
500kV  
Approx 500 (km)  
1.6% (1000 km)  
2.6% (1000 km)  
7% (1000 km)  
1100kV  
800kV  
500kV  
Approx 0.3% (100 km)  
Transmission 1000kV  
loss  
Approx 1% (100 km)  
500kV  
Approx 7 (m/GW)  
Transmission  
line corridor  
1100kV  
800kV  
500kV  
18-28 (m/GW)  
Approx 55 (m/GW)  
1000kV  
500kV  
Approx 8.5 (m/GW)  
Approx 13 (m/GW)  
1030 [yuan (km · MW)]  
1680 [yuan (km · MW)]  
2580 [yuan (km · MW)]  
1100kV  
800kV  
500kV  
1750 [yuan (km · MW)]  
2500 [yuan (km · MW)]  
1000kV  
500kV  
Unit cost  
Figure 2-6 Comparison of UHV and EHV AC/DC Transmission Technologies  
First, UHV is a practical and feasible technological option to resolve the issue of  
resource and load distribution imbalance. Due to historical and climatic factors, people  
generally inhabit regions with comfortable environments, warm and breezy climates,  
and good natural conditions. Clean energy, however, tends to abound in sparsely-  
populated regions with poor living environments, such as deserts, semi-deserts, remote  
mountains, and wastelands. This imbalance between the distribution of clean energy  
resources and electrical load—with distances in the hundreds, thousands, or even tens  
of thousands of kilometres—exists on a global scale, as shown in Figure 2-7. PV power  
is mostly distributed in West and Central Asia, western China, western India, northern  
and southern Africa, the southern United States, northern Chile, and other regions; wind  
power is mainly distributed in Central Asia, northern and western China, Sakhalin Island in  
East Asia, Europe’s North Sea, the islands of Greenland, northern, eastern, and southern  
Africa, the central United States, southern South America, and other regions; hydropower  
is mainly concentrated in the Amu Darya of Central Asia, the Tigris and Euphrates of West  
Asia, the Yenisei, Ob, and Lena of Russia, the Jinsha River and Yarlung Zangbo River of  
China, the Mekong and Irrawaddy Rivers of Southeast Asia, the Ganges and Indus Rivers  
of South Asia, the Scandinavian Mountains river system of northern Europe, the Congo,  
Niger, Zambezi and Nile of Africa, the St. Lawrence and Mississippi of North America, the  
039  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Amazon of South America, and other rivers. Electrical load centers, meanwhile, are mainly  
located in East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Europe, southern Africa, North America,  
southeast South America, and other regions.  
Figure 2-7 Global Clean Energy Resources and Electrical Load Distribution  
EHV transmission technology, with a transmission range only in the hundreds of kilometres,  
is unable to transmit electricity from clean energy resources to power load centers,  
whereas UHV transmission technology can supply electricity to thousands of kilometres  
away and has a capacity in the tens of gigawatt-hours range. Major clean energy-rich  
regions are all within the reach of UHV transmission. Hence, building UHV technology-  
empowered grids to deliver high-quality clean energy to load centers worldwide is the  
optimal solution for managing the uneven distribution of resources and loads.  
Second, the UHV grid accelerates the development of clean energy. In terms of  
resources, clean energy is vulnerable to changes in time, weather, and season, and is  
characterized by random, intermittent, and volatile outputs. For example, solar PV power  
generation is only possible during sunny daylight hours. Wind turbines only generate  
power when wind speeds reach a certain level. As for hydropower, output during wet  
seasons is more than five times that of dry seasons. Despite all this, when taken at the  
global level, different regions and of different varieties of clean energy output complement  
each other remarkably well. In terms of demand, power load levels depend on daily  
human work routines, with some regions exhibiting a significant peak-valley difference.  
However, at the global level, taking all regions and hemispheres into consideration,  
time zone variation and seasonal variation occur synchronously. There is a seven-hour  
time difference between China and Europe and an eleven-hour time difference between  
eastern and western Russia. Temperatures vary dramatically between temperate and  
tropical regions, and seasons in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres are opposite  
from one another. Different countries and regions have different peak times for electricity  
consumption, such that the total global electrical load appears to be stable. A full grasp of  
the abovementioned resource and demand characteristics, in concert with the large-scale  
interconnection and interworking of power grids, will effectively achieve complementarity  
040  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
on the resource side and load leveling on the demand side, improve the flexibility and  
operating efficiency of the power system, and thereby accelerate the development of  
clean energy. Figure 2-8 illustrates the general principle of how grid interconnection  
promotes power system integration and increased proportions of clean energy.  
System A  
ŗ UHV Transmission  
Load center  
Wind power  
base  
Thermal power plant  
ř
ꢀ
System B  
Ř
Solar power  
generation base  
(a) Independent systems A and B  
(b) Wind power base A is connected to system B  
Ś
ꢀ
ś
ꢀ
(c) PV power base B is connected to system A  
(d) The load centers of System A and system B  
are connected  
Figure 2-8 General Principle of Grid Interconnection to Promote Clean Energy Development  
Figure 2-8(a): Assume that there are two independent power systems A and B. In system  
A, clean electricity from a distant wind base is transmitted to the load center of system  
A via UHV line; for B, electricity similarly comes from a distant PV base. In this scenario,  
systems A and B still must reserve a large volume of fossil fuels to ensure a reliable supply  
of power in the absence of wind or sunlight. Therefore, they can only manage clean  
energy at small scales and in low proportion. The development of clean energy is thus  
severely restricted.  
Figure 2-8(b): By connecting the wind power base to system B by UHV line, wind and  
PV power can work complementary to each other. For system B, the clean electricity it  
041  
Towards Sustainable Development  
receives will be more stable, and power operation will be safer, with less peak pressure,  
which will reduce the amount of fossil fuels used in power generation and increase the  
proportion of clean energy. In so doing, the scale of wind and PV power development will  
be stepped up significantly.  
Figure 2-8(c): If the PV power base is further connected to system A by UHV line, as  
shown in Figure 2-8 (b) for system B, system A can also reduce its use of fossil fuels in  
power generation and utilize more clean energy. Even more headway will be made in  
expanding the scale of wind and PV power.  
Figure 2-8(d): Finally, if the load centers of systems A and B are connected by UHV line,  
then their power loads can complement each other, reducing the installed capacity of  
fossil fuel power generation yet further. Independent systems A and B are now integrated  
into a whole, ensuring more efficient and coordinated operation.  
Large-scale grid interconnection is therefore of vital importance to clean energy  
development and the energy transition. Without it, clean energy development will run  
into a “bottleneck” blocking large-scale deployment in the power system, as shown in  
Figure 2-8 (a). Interconnection at the global level requires the UHV grid. In short, UHV  
grid technology can deliver clean energy from distant resource centers to power load  
centers, resolving the issue of uneven distribution. As an essential platform for global grid  
interconnection, the UHV grid can also accelerate the development and utilization of clean  
energy, effectively facilitating the energy transition.  
2.3.3 Smart Grid  
Compared with the traditional power system, GEI employs a greater variety of electric  
equipment, offers a higher proportion of clean energy, and features a wider range of  
grid interconnection, such that it requires higher-level operations security, flexibility, and  
power service quality. This is where the smart grid comes in. Smart grid, the base of GEI,  
brings together a series of smart technologies and devices—including such advanced  
energy technologies as smart control, new energy storage, DC grid, and high-efficiency  
power utilization—along with cutting-edge information and communication technologies  
such as cloud computing, big data, and the Internet of Things. It can adapt to all kinds of  
centralized and distributed grid connection and consumption scenarios, meet the needs of  
various electric equipment access and interactive services, realize intelligent interaction and  
efficient coordination between power source, grid, load, and storage, and ensure the safe and  
economic operation of GEI. Figure 2-9 provides a schematic diagram of the smart grid.  
042  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
Thermal  
power  
Smart buildings  
Nuclear  
power  
Distributed PV power  
generation  
Power transmission  
Smart substation  
Hydropower  
Power  
transmission  
Power  
distribution  
Power  
generation  
Charging, battery  
replacing, energy  
storage and  
Wind power  
discharging of EVs  
Solar power  
generation  
Communication  
information support  
Smart buildings  
Dispatch  
Communication  
Smart home  
appliance  
Energy  
storage  
Information flow  
Smart  
meters  
Power flow  
Power utilization  
Business flow  
Figure 2-9 Smart Grid  
2.3.4 Energy System Reform via GEI  
Energy production is shifting to “clean energy leadership”. With centralized  
development as the major mode, priority is given to the large-scale development of  
concentrated PV power stations, wind power plants, and hydropower stations in areas with  
quality resources. This centralized structure is supplemented by distributed development:  
PV, wind and hydro power stations are set up according to local conditions. Additionally,  
resource quality advantages can be used to form a scale effect, minimize development  
costs, increase project revenues, accelerate the development of global clean energy, and  
put hydropower, wind power, and PV power in a dominant position.  
Energy allocation is shifting to “global interconnection”. The use of UHV grids will  
facilitate global interconnection and address the problem of clean energy resource-load  
distribution imbalance. Giving play to large-scale grids’ key feature of “energy storage  
across time and space”, differences can be coordinated across time zone, season,  
resource availability, and electricity price, accelerating the large-scale development and  
efficient utilization of clean energy, ultimately promoting the global energy transition.  
Energy consumption is shifting to “electri-centrism”. Clean electricity is widely used  
in industry, commerce, transportation, and residential life. Smart grids can be applied to  
meet the needs of various electrical equipment access and interactive services, realize  
intelligent interaction, and efficiently coordinate power source, grid, load, and storage—  
thereby ensuring the safe and cost-effective operation of GEI.  
043  
Towards Sustainable Development  
2.4 Conditions for Global Energy Interconnection  
GEI has injected new motivation into the global energy transition. Right now, the  
technological, economic, and political conditions are already in place to build Global  
Energy Interconnection.  
2.4.1 Technological Feasibility  
Clean energy technology makes constant headway. In recent years, the conversion  
efficiency of solar PV cells has increased at a rate of 1 to 1.5 percentage points per  
year. The conversion efficiencies of single-junction monocrystalline silicon cells, single-  
junction polycrystalline silicon cells, and thin-film cells have respectively reached up to  
26.1%, 23.2%, and 23.4%, as shown in Figure 2-10. Unremitting progress has likewise  
been made in large-capacity wind power generation technology. The 9.5 MW wind-turbine  
generator has been put into commercial operation, and the 15 MW wind-turbine generator  
has now been successfully developed. The advancing unit capacity of wind-turbine  
generators is shown in Figure 2-11. These improvements in PV cell efficiency and wind-  
turbine generator unit capacity will cut down on the costs of power generation, which  
will accelerate the development of PV and wind power generation. Solar thermal power  
generation technology has also seen great progress in recent years. Its global installed  
capacity now amounts to 6.5 GW, with a maximum heat storage duration of 15 hours.  
The reliability and economy of solar thermal power generation have gradually upgraded.  
Figure 2-12 shows representative wind and solar power projects around the world for.  
Multijunction Cells (2-terminal, monolithic)  
LM = lattice matched  
MM = metamorphic  
IMM = inverted, metamorphic  
Three-junction (concentrator)  
Thin-Film Technologies  
CIGS (concentrator)  
CIGS  
CdTe  
Amorphous Si:H (stabilized)  
Three-junction (non concentrator)  
Two-junction (concentrator)  
Two-junction (non concentrator)  
Four junction or more (concentrator)  
Four junction or more (non concentrator)  
Emerging PV  
Dye-sensitized cells  
Perovskite cells  
Perovskite/Si tandem (monolithic)  
Organic cells (various types)  
Organic tandem cells  
Inorganic cells (CZTSSe)  
Quantum dot cells (various types)  
Perovskite/CIGS tandem (monolithic)  
Single-Junction GaAs  
Single crystal  
Concentrator  
Thin-film crystal  
Crystalline Si Cells  
Single crystal (concentrator)  
Single crystal (non concentrator)  
Multicrystalline  
Silicon heterostructures (HIT)  
Thin-film crystal  
Year  
Figure 2-10 PV Cell Conversion Efficiency DevelopmentA  
Source: NREL. Best research-cell efficiencies chart revised 09-16-2019.  
A
044  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
Length of blade: 80m  
Capacity per unit: 9.5MW  
Length of blade: 64m  
Capacity per unit: 5MW  
Length of blade: 56m  
Capacity per unit: 4.5MW  
Length of blade: 7m  
Capacity per unit: 0.05MW  
1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005  
2018  
Figure 2-11 Wind-turbine Generator Unit Capacity Development  
(a) The world’s largest onshore wind power base—  
Jiuquan Wind Power Base in Gansu, China  
(b) The world’s largest single PV power station—Yanchi  
PV Power Station in Ningxia, China  
Figure 2-12 Representative Wind and Solar Power Projects  
UHV power transmission technology is advanced and well-developed. The innovative  
breakthrough of UHV technology marks a milestone in the history of the electric power  
industry. Since the 1960s, the former Soviet Union, Japan, Italy, and other nations  
have carried out UHV test research and engineering practice, but none of these were  
successful. China has been conducting UHV technology innovation and engineering  
applications since 2004, and has made comprehensive breakthroughs in technology,  
equipment, standards and engineering. As of now, China has completed 25 UHV projects  
(11 AC and 14 DC projects), forming the world’s largest-scale and highest voltage class  
UHV AC-DC hybrid grid. By transmitting clean energy from west China to load centers  
thousands of kilometres away in the east, the UHV grid plays a dominant role in the  
country’s clean energy development and energy transition. With this experience, China  
proposes building GEI, thus sharing and promoting its advanced technologies with  
the world. Brazil has already completed two 800 kV UHV DC projects using Chinese  
technology; India has also completed two UHV DC projects. UHV technology development  
is sufficiently mature, with broad prospects for application. Figure 2-13 shows some UHV  
technical equipment and representative projects.  
045  
Towards Sustainable Development  
(a) The world’s first UHV AC project—Southeast  
Shanxi-Nanyang-Jingmen UHV Project  
(b) The world’s first double-circuit UHV AC project—  
“Anhui-to-East Power Transmission” project  
(c) 1000 kV UHV AC transformer  
(d) The world’s first 1100 kV DC transmission  
project—Zhundong-South Anhui UHV DC project  
(e) 1100 kV UHV converter transformer  
(f) Belo Mountain UHV Converter Station in Brazil  
Figure 2-13 UHV Technical Equipment and Projects  
The use of smart grid technology is widespread. With mature large grid operation  
control technologies, China, North America, Europe, and a number of other countries or  
regions have established large-scale power grid security and stability control and defense  
systems combining high-precision simulation, wide-area monitoring, and protection and  
control to ensure the safe and reliable operation of interconnected power grids. Energy  
storage technology is developing at a tremendous pace. Global installed capacity has  
exceeded 180 GW. In particular, electrochemical energy storage has experienced rapid  
growth, with an average annual increase of over 40% for the past decade, with extensive  
space open for further development. Along with the pace of development for smart power  
consumption and demand-side response technology, the total number of smart electric  
046  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
metres in the world is increasing by 100 million to 150 million every year, cumulative  
installations in China alone now exceeding 600 million. Electricity replacement technology  
is likewise developing at a furious pace. It is expected that in 2020, electric vehicles will  
total between 9 and 20 million. Charging and discharging technology will be constantly  
upgraded and large-scale commercial applications will be realized around the world.  
Advanced information technologies such as big data, cloud computing, the Internet of  
Things, artificial intelligence, and block chain have all witnessed further development and  
increased application in the field of energy and power. These information technologies have  
played an increasingly essential role in ensuring the security of power systems, facilitating  
energy reform, promoting business model innovation, and improving the service quality  
and operational efficiency of enterprises. In short, the development and application of  
smart grid technology renders the power system more secure, economical, and flexible; it  
meets the large-scale access needs of intermittent power sources like wind and solar as  
well as of various smart electric equipment, strongly supporting GEI development. Figure  
2-14 shows the development and application of smart grid-related technologies.  
8
7
Other PHEV  
Other BEV  
6
US PHEV  
US BEV  
5
4
3
2
Europe PHEV  
Europe BEV  
China PHEV  
China BEV  
World BEV  
1
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019  
Year  
(a) Car Park of Electric Vehicles Globally, 2010-2019[13]  
(b) Zhenjiang 24-MW Battery Energy Storage Power  
Station, China  
(c) Substation Patrol and Inspection AI Robot  
Figure 2-14 Development and Application of Smart Grid-related Technologies  
047  
Towards Sustainable Development  
2.4.2 Economic Competitiveness  
Economic efficiency is the energy transition’s inherent driving force. From the perspective  
of energy production, allocation and consumption, GEI, with a high degree of economic  
efficiency, is the most cost-effective and competitive solution to expedite the energy transition.  
In regard to energy production, the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of onshore wind  
power, offshore wind power, PV power generation and solar thermal power generation  
has decreased by 39%, 29%, 82% and 47% respectively over the past decade [14]. The  
winning bids for PV projects in Portugal and Brazil and wind power projects in Mexico  
have been lowered to 1.8 US cents/kWh or less. In 2019, 56% of new large-scale  
renewable energy power generation costs less than fossil fuels generation. It is evident  
that the cost of clean energy will continue to fall, while the cost of fossil fuels, restrained by  
resource and environmental factors, will continue to rise. It is expected that by 2025, the  
competitiveness of PV and onshore wind power generation will surpass that of fossil fuels  
generation, as shown in Figure 2-15.  
35  
30  
25  
20  
15  
10  
5
0
2005  
2010 2015  
2020  
2025  
2030  
2035  
2040  
2045  
2050  
Year  
Onshore wind  
power  
PV power  
generation  
Coal-fired power  
generation  
Figure 2-15 Forecasted LCOE for Global Onshore Wind, PV, and Coal-fired Power Generation  
In regard to energy allocation, the UHV grid enables coordination across regional  
discrepancies in resource distribution, time zones, seasons, and electricity prices to  
realize optimal allocation and clean energy complementarity at a global scale, improving  
the economic efficiency of the whole system. This most efficient approach to energy  
allocation generates the largest benefit for the least investment. For example, UHV power  
transmission can carry hydropower harnessed from the lower reaches of Congo River to  
the western, northern, eastern, and southern parts of Africa via UHV DC lines. The retail  
price is 2 to 6 US cents/kWh lower than the local on-grid price, generating significant  
economic benefits. Energy storage, which is one of the most expensive investments in the  
energy transition, offers another example of GEI’s economic competitiveness. Wide-range  
interconnection greatly reduces the demand for energy storage in the power system once  
clean energy is connected. GEIDCO research shows that in 2050, under the GEI scenario,  
global demand for energy storage will amount to about 4 TW. However, if the UHV grid is not  
used for the global allocation of clean energy, the demand energy storage demand will be at  
a much higher scale, and the price of energy investment will increase significantly.  
048  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
In regard to energy consumption, the costs of energy consumption have dropped  
rapidly with the development and expansion of electricity replacement technology.  
Electricity consumption is becoming quite economically competitive in many fields. In the  
industry sector, because electric equipment has higher efficiency and lower maintenance  
costs compared with traditional coal-burning equipment, metallurgical electric furnaces,  
electric boilers and electric furnaces are gaining popularity at a startling pace. In the  
transport sector, the cost of batteries for electric vehicles has fallen by 80% in the past  
decade, their running cost now only about one-fifth of that of fuel-powered vehicle of  
comparable weight and power. In domestic life, the unit cost for energy consumption  
of large all-electric kitchens is 14% lower than that of traditional kitchens [15], and the  
comprehensive cost of running electric heating is also lower than that of gas. The lower  
(clean) energy costs and electricity prices brought about by GEI will only further reduce  
costs associated with electricity, thereby accelerating fossil fuels’ replacement with  
electricity in consumption and promoting energy electrification.  
2.4.3 Political Consensus  
The Paris Agreement was signed by 195 countries, indicating a solid political foundation  
for tackling climate change and driving the world toward energy transition. In this respect,  
governments and intergovernmental organizations have formulated policy and taken  
action.  
Regarding clean development, over 176 countries have introduced relevant policies to  
encourage clean, low-carbon development [16], including specific targets and schedules  
related to renewable energy proportion and carbon emissions mitigation, as well as  
supporting policies for clean energy, electric vehicles (EVs), along with electricity  
replacement subsidies, loans, taxes and fees. Among them, 25 EU countries have  
pledged to cease building coal-fired power stations after 2020. The UK has decided to  
throughly phase out coal-fired power by 2025; Denmark has promised to be completely  
rid of fossil fuels by 2050; Germany plans to increase its proportion of clean energy for  
power generation to 80% by 2050; Norway will prohibit the sale of oil-fueled vehicles after  
2025, India after 2030, the UK and France after 2040.  
Table 2-1 Proposed Deadlines for Phasing Out Coal-fired Power Generation by Country  
Country  
Deadline  
Country  
Deadline  
Country  
Deadline  
Country  
Deadline  
Belgium  
2016  
Austria  
2020  
Sweden  
2020  
Spain  
2020  
New Zealand  
2022  
France  
2023  
Italy  
The UK  
2025  
Ireland  
2025  
Israel  
2025  
Greece  
2028  
The Netherlands  
2030  
2025  
Finland  
2030  
Portugal  
2030  
Denmark  
2030  
Hungary  
2030  
Switzerland  
2030  
Luxembourg  
2030  
Angola  
2030  
Ethiopia  
2030  
Costa Rica  
2030  
Chile  
Mexico  
2030  
Germany  
2038  
2030  
049  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Regarding interconnection, governments and international organizations have  
increasingly emphasized the strengthening of power grid infrastructure—especially  
transnational power interconnection. The EU E-Highway 2050 plan offers a roadmap for  
renewable energy development, long-distance power transmission, and the construction  
of a pan-European interconnected power grid from 2020 to 2050. The African Union has  
formulated the Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa and coordinated  
African countries to strengthen the interconnection of power grids. The United Nations  
ESCAP has actively promoted national power grid interconnection in the Asia-Pacific  
region in an effort to accelerate the region’s energy transition and integration. Central  
and South American countries have a long history of regional energy cooperation. As  
early as 1973, the Latin American Energy Organization was established to advance the  
construction of interconnected power systems in the Andean Community. China has put  
forward the Belt and Road Initiative, which underscores power interconnection and has  
received positive responses and support from countries along its routes. Great efforts  
have additionally been made to connect power across China’s borders with Russia,  
Mongolia, Myanmar, Laos, and other nations.  
On the whole, the international community has reached a consensus on clean  
development and interconnection, and an increasing number of countries are aware of  
the role of GEI in accelerating the energy transition as well as its economic, political,  
and security benefits. As the energy transition progresses and more GEI projects are  
operationalized, the scientific soundness and optimistic outlook of GEI will only become  
more and more apparent, further consolidating the current political consensus. Therefore,  
at the political level, GEI already has a good foundation and has even better prospects for  
development in the future.  
050  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
2.5 The Road Ahead for Global Energy Interconnection  
GEI, a massive, systematic engineering project, involves a great number of countries  
and multiple fields. Through in-depth research on various countries’ economic and social  
situations, resource endowment, energy production and consumption, GEIDCO presents  
this GEI Development Roadmap [2]  
.
In regard to energy supply and demand, GEI has rapidly impelled clean energy in  
energy production and the electrification of energy consumption. By 2035, the global  
installed capacity of clean energy will reach 11.9TW, accounting for 73% of the total, and  
PV, wind, and hydro power will respectively account for 30%, 23%, and 14% of the total.  
Besides these sources will be mostly nuclear, biomass, and geothermal power. Global  
power demand will total 44,100TWh, with an annual growth rate of 3.66% from 2016 to  
2035. By 2050, the global installed capacity of clean energy will increase to 21.8TW,  
accounting for 84% of the total; and the proportion of PV power will increase to 42% of  
the total, while that of wind power and hydropower will reach 26% and 11% respectively.  
Global power demand will climb to 61,600TWh, with an annual growth rate of 2.25%  
between 2035 and 2050. The global power source structure and development of power  
demand are shown in Figure 2-16 and Figure 2-17 respectively.  
In regard to power grid interconnection, a backbone network of “nine horizontal and  
nine vertical” grids will be built across the globe to form a hub network supported by UHV  
power transmission and smart grid. The network will connect large clean energy bases  
and major power loads, achieving global allocation with complementarity across time of  
day and season, as shown in Figure 2-18. These backbone grids, with a total length of  
over 180,000km, are to involve over a hundred countries, 80% of the world’s population  
and 90% of the economic aggregate.  
051  
Towards Sustainable Development  
30  
25  
20  
15  
10  
5
0
2016  
2035  
Year  
2050  
Thermal power  
Wind power  
Nuclear power  
Solar power  
Hydropower  
Others  
Figure 2-16 Global Power Source Structure  
70  
60  
50  
40  
30  
20  
10  
4.5  
4.0  
3.5  
3.0  
2.5  
2.0  
1.5  
1.0  
0.5  
0
0
2000  
2005  
2010  
2016  
2035  
2050  
Year  
Africa  
Oceania  
Asia  
Europe  
North America  
Growth rate  
Central and South America  
Figure 2-17 Global Power Demand  
052  
Figure 2-18 GEI Backbone Grids  
053  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
In Figure 2-18, the horizontal channels are as follows:  
Horizontal channel 1: The Arctic energy interconnection channel would run from  
Norway in northern Europe to the US, through Russia, and across the Bering Strait.  
Spanning 19 time zones, it would enable 80% of power system interconnections in  
the Northern Hemisphere.  
Horizontal channel 2: The Eurasian north horizontal channel would connect China,  
Kazakhstan in Central Asia, and Germany and France in Europe, among other  
countries, bringing clean energy from Central Asia to Europe and China through UHV  
technology.  
Horizontal channel 3: The Eurasian south horizontal channel would connect  
Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia and southern Europe. The channel would  
enable the transmission of PV power from West Asia to load centers in Europe and  
South Asia, and hydropower from Southeast Asia and China to South Asia.  
Horizontal channel 4: The Africa-Asia north horizontal channel would connect  
PV power bases in South Asia, West Asia and northern Africa. The channel would  
transmit PV power from West Asia to northern Africa.  
Horizontal channel 5: The Africa–Asia south horizontal channel would connect  
hydropower bases along the Congo River and the Nile River with PV power bases in  
West Asia, thus achieving complementary support between hydropower in Africa and  
PV power in West Asia.  
Horizontal channel 6: The North American north horizontal channel would connect  
power grids in eastern and western Canada, enhance power exchange capacity  
between the two regions, and draw wind power from the Arctic. The channel would  
transmit electricity to load centers in eastern Canada.  
Horizontal channel 7: The North American south horizontal channel would connect  
PV power bases in the western US and wind power bases in the central US, as well  
as the hydropower from the Mississippi River. The channel would transmit electricity  
to New York and Washington DC in the east, as well as load centers in the west.  
Horizontal channel 8: The South American north horizontal channel would connect  
Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela in the northern part of South America, enhancing  
regional power exchange capacity.  
Horizontal channel 9: The South American south horizontal channel would connect  
hydropower bases in the Amazon River Basin with Chilean PV power and transmit  
electricity to load centers in southeastern Brazil.  
055  
Towards Sustainable Development  
The vertical channels are as follows:  
Vertical channel 1: The Europe-Africa west vertical channel would run from Iceland  
to southern Africa through the UK, France, Spain, Morocco, and western Africa, and  
run north to the Western Hemisphere through Greenland.  
Vertical channel 2: The Europe-Africa middle vertical channel would connect wind  
power bases in the Arctic, hydropower bases in northern Europe, and PV power  
bases in northern Africa. The channel would run through the European continent via  
Germany, France, Austria, and Italy.  
Vertical channel 3: The Europe-Africa east vertical channel would run from southern  
Africa’s Barents coast to through Russia, the Baltic Sea, Ukraine, Egypt, and eastern  
Africa. The channel would transmit wind power from the Arctic and the Baltic Sea to  
Europe, as well as hydropower from the Nile to northern and southern Africa.  
Vertical channel 4: The Asian west vertical channel would connect PV power bases  
in Central Asia and West Asia with Siberian hydropower bases in Russia. The channel  
would enable multi-energy integration via the Central Asian synchronous power grid  
and extend northward to the wind power base at the Kara Sea.  
Vertical channel 5: The Asian middle vertical channel would connect hydropower  
bases in Russia, as well as wind and PV power bases in northwest China and  
hydropower bases in southwest China. The channel would bring electricity to South  
Asian load centers through UHV DC transmission.  
Vertical channel 6: The Asian east vertical channel would connect Russia, China,  
northeast Asia, and Southeast Asia. The channel would transmit clean power from the  
Russian Far East, China, and Southeast Asia to load centers.  
Vertical channel 7: The American west vertical channel would receive wind power  
from the Arctic and form an UHV AC synchronous power grid around Canada and the  
US-Mexico west coast. The channel would interconnect grids in the northern part of  
South America via Central America via UHV DC line.  
Vertical channel 8: The Central American middle vertical channel would start from  
Manitoba (Canada) in the north and run through the central US to Texas. It would  
further extend to Mexico City in the south, thus achieving complementary support  
among multiple energy sources north to south.  
Vertical channel 9: The American east vertical channel would start from Quebec  
in Canada and run along the east coast of the US to Florida. It would receive  
hydropower from Canada in the north, as well as PV power from the western US  
and wind power from the central US, thereby achieving wide-range clean energy  
allocation.  
056  
2
Global Energy Interconnection  
Focusing on backbone grids, GEI development can be divided into three stages: domestic  
interconnection, intra-continental interconnection, and inter-continental interconnection.  
By 2025, countries will have overall strengthened the interconnection of their domestic  
power grids and achieved major breakthroughs in transnational interconnection. By 2035,  
power grids will be interconnected among all continents; five horizontal and five vertical  
global channels will be constructed; Asia, Europe, and Africa will take the lead in realizing  
transcontinental interconnection, with a trans-regional/transcontinental flow capacity of  
330GW. By 2050, the major channel interconnecting Asia, Europe and Africa as well as  
the Americas will be realized; the Arctic energy channel will be built; the GEI backbone  
grid of “nine horizontal and nine vertical” channels will come into being with a trans-  
regional/transcontinental flow capacity of 660GW. This will give birth to a new pattern of  
global development, clean energy allocation and utilization.  
057  
Towards Sustainable Development  
References  
[1] IRENA. Renewable Energy and Jobs: Annual Review 2019 [R]. 2019.  
[2] GEIDCO. Research and Outlook on Global Energy Interconnection [M]. Beijing:  
China Electric Power Press. 2019.  
[3] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Special Report on Global  
Warming of 1.5℃ [R]. 2018.  
[4] IEA. Energy and Air Pollution [M]. Beijing: China Machine Press. 2017.  
[5] Luo Kaisha, Shu Longcang, Tan Bingqing, Wu Wei. Research on Water Resource  
Utilization in Huainan Mining Area [A]. Wuhan University. Conference on  
Environmental Pollution and Public Health [C]. Wuhan University: Scientific Research  
Publishing, 2010:5.  
[6] Greenpeace. How the Coal Industry Exacerbates the Global Water Crisis [R]. 2016.  
[7] IRENA. Renewable Capacity Statistics 2019 [R]. 2019.  
[8] IRENA. 10 Years: Progress to Action [R]. 2020.  
[9] IEA. World Energy Balances 2019 [R]. 2019.  
[10] British Petroleum. Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 [R]. 2019.  
[11] IRENA. Statistics on Rethinking Energy 2017 [R]. 2017.  
[12] GEIDCO. Research Report on Global Energy Interconnection for Addressing Climate  
Change [M]. Beijing: China Electric Power Press. 2019.  
[13] IRENA. Global EV Outlook 2020 [R]. 2020.  
[14] IRENA. Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2019 [R]. 2019.  
[15] Qing Zhongfa. Analysis and Research on Economy and Environmental Protection of  
All-electric Kitchen [J]. Power Demand Side Management. 2020. Vol 22, No. 3: 33-37.  
[16] IRENA. Renewable Energy Policies in a Time of Transition [R]. 2018.  
058  
GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda  
for Sustainable Development  
3
Towards Sustainable Development  
The core of sustainable development lies in clean development. A series  
of major challenges facing human society, such as scarcity of resources,  
environmental pollution, climate change, lack of access to electricity and  
health poverty, are all closely linked to the non-clean development mode  
at the expense of the ecological environment. Energy has a broad and  
profound impact on human society, and the fundamental way to achieve  
clean development lies in clean energy. As a major revolution in the  
’
world s energy system, GEI will harness energy as a link to advance clean  
development and comprehensive improvement of the world economy,  
society and environment and promote sustainable development.  
Regarding research and practice, GEI will generate nine direct benefits:  
① Accelerating the development of clean energy; ② Expanding power  
grid interconnection; ③ Enhancing electrification; ④ ensuring the safety  
and economic supply of electricity; ⑤ Reducing pollution and carbon  
emissions; ⑥ Driving innovation in technologies and models; ⑦ Promoting  
industrial development and employment; ⑧ Increasing investment and  
trade in electricity; ⑨ Building platforms for international cooperation.  
These nine benefits will contribute to the achievement of the 17 sustainable  
development goals identified in the 2030 Agenda, as shown in Figure 3-1.  
For example, it can help develop clean energy (Benefit ① ), promote power  
grid interconnection (Benefit ② ), guarantee electricity supply (Benefit  
④ ), and develop related industries (Benefit ⑦ ) to eradicate poverty, as  
well as facilitate electrification (Benefit ③ ), develop industry and promote  
employment (Benefit ⑦ ) to push for gender equality, and so on.  
As regards the role and effect, the roles of GEI in promoting the realization  
of Sustainable Development Goals can be divided into three categories: the  
decisive and overall role; the critical and leading role; and the supportive  
and synergistic role (see Table 3-1 and Figure 3-2 for details).  
The decisive and overall role means that benefits brought by GEI are  
the dominant influencing factors in the target field. GEI can achieve  
the goals comprehensively and fundamentally, mainly including “Ensure  
access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all (SDG  
7)” and “Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (SDG  
13)”. For example, through building GEI and implementing clean energy  
060  
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Interconnection  
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Enhancing  
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carbon  
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Figure 3-1 Correlation Model between GEI and SDGs of 2030 Agenda  
061  
3
GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
replacement and electricity replacement, the overall decarbonization of the  
energy system will be accelerated and global carbon emissions will peak  
around 2025. By around 2050, the world will basically achieve net zero  
emissions and achieve the temperature rise control targets of 2℃ or  
even 1.5℃. For another example, through the coordinated development  
of large clean energy bases and distributed power sources, and the  
acceleration of the interconnection and extension of transmission and  
distribution networks, the popularity rate of electricity will be significantly  
increased, the cost of energy use reduced, and the goal of sustainable  
energy for all realized.  
The critical and leading role means that the benefits brought by GEI  
are key influencing factors in the target field. GEI can not only partially  
and significantly achieve the goals, but also drive the resolution of  
other issues that restrict the realization of the goals. Relevant goals  
include “Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages  
(SDG 3)”, “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and  
sanitation for all (SDG 6)”, “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable  
economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work  
for all (SDG 8)”, “Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and  
sustainable industrialization and foster innovation (SDG 9)”, “Make cities  
and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” (SDG  
11), “Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns (SDG 12)”,  
“Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources  
for sustainable development (SDG 14)”, and “Protect, restore and promote  
sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests,  
combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt  
biodiversity loss (SDG 15)”. For example, a clean energy-led system will  
effectively reduce environmental pollution caused by fossil fuels, and  
directly reduce diseases and deaths caused by it. Additionally, GEI will  
enhance the electricity access in areas with power shortages, improve  
medical standards, and increase the chance of local patients being cured.  
For another example, the replacement of fossil fuels by clean energy will  
effectively reduce the water consumption of fossil fuels power generation  
and alleviate the shortage of fresh water resources. The popularization  
of electricity can drive the widespread application of electrified sewage  
treatment equipment and help tackle water pollution.  
063  
Towards Sustainable Development  
The supportive and synergistic role means that the benefits brought  
by GEI are related factors in the target field. GEI can provide the  
basic conditions and environment for achieving the goals, reduce the  
cost or increase the efficiency of realizing the goals. Relevant goals  
include “End poverty in all its forms everywhere” (SDG 1), “End hunger,  
achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable  
agriculture” (SDG 2), “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and  
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (SDG 4), “Achieve gender  
equality and empower all women and girls” (SDG 5), “Reduce inequality  
within and among countries” (SDG 10), “Promote peaceful and inclusive  
societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and  
build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels” (SDG  
16), “Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global  
partnership for sustainable development” (SDG 17). For example, many  
poverty-stricken areas are located in remote areas with abundant clean  
energy resources. Building GEI can prompt clean energy development,  
drive local employment, and provide opportunities and conditions for local  
residents to lift themselves out of poverty. Another example is that women  
have no advantage over men in manual labor, but they are almost equally  
competent in technical jobs. However, power-deficient areas are restricted  
from developing technology-intensive industries. In response, GEI will  
provide the necessary basic conditions for industrial upgrading in power-  
deficient areas from labor-intensive to technology-intensive, and further offer  
more employment opportunities to women, thus indirectly facilitating gender  
equality.  
Based on the analysis of the development status and influencing factors  
of the 17 SDGs of the 2030 Agenda, this chapter expounds the role and  
contribution of GEI to the realization of various goals from 51 aspects  
through data and facts, and demonstrates the significance and value of GEI  
in promoting the sustainable development of mankind.  
064  
3
GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Table 3-1 Classification of the Roles of GEI in Achieving 17 SDGs  
Relevance of  
No.  
Contents  
Role of GEI in achieving SDGs  
GEI to SDGs  
SDG 1  
SDG 2  
SDG 3  
SDG 4  
SDG 5  
SDG 6  
SDG 7  
SDG 8  
SDG 9  
SDG 10  
SDG 11  
No Poverty  
Zero Hunger  
Supportive and synergistic role  
Supportive and synergistic role  
Critical and leading role  
★
★
Good Health and Well-being  
Quality Education  
★★  
★
Supportive and synergistic role  
Supportive and synergistic role  
Critical and leading role  
Gender Equality  
★
Clean Water and Sanitation  
Affordable and Clean Energy  
Decent Work and Economic Growth  
Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure  
Reduced Inequalities  
★★  
★★★  
★★  
★★  
★
Decisive and overall role  
Critical and leading role  
Critical and leading role  
Supportive and synergistic role  
Critical and leading role  
Sustainable Cities and Communities  
★★  
★★  
★★★  
★★  
★★  
★
SDG 12 Responsible Consumption and Production  
Critical and leading role  
SDG 13  
SDG 14  
SDG 15  
SDG 16  
SDG 17  
Climate Action  
Life below Water  
Decisive and overall role  
Critical and leading role  
Life on Land  
Critical and leading role  
Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions  
Partnerships for the Goals  
Supportive and synergistic role  
Supportive and synergistic role  
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Figure 3-2 Classification of the Roles of GEI in Achieving 17 SDGs  
065  
Towards Sustainable Development  
3.1 Global Poverty Relief  
At present, about 740 million people live below the international poverty line, mainly  
concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, accounting for more than 80% of the  
global poor population. These people live without access to enough food and clean water,  
and their basic life cannot be guaranteed.  
Poverty is closely related to the lack of electricity. Figure 3-3 shows the situation of poor  
people and people without access to electricity in 10 least developed countries with per  
capita GDP below USD 600. These countries are concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa,  
where the poor population accounts for over 40% (In most countries, the proportion  
exceeds 60%), and the proportion of people without access to electricity exceeds 70%.  
The severe lack of electricity made it impossible for these countries to develop industry,  
resulting in the low level of economic development, exacerbating social poverty.  
The SDG 1 of the 2030 Agenda calls for ending poverty in all its forms everywhere.  
The main tasks are to eradicate extreme poverty everywhere and ensure equal access  
to resources for all by 2030. Building GEI will provide adequate energy supply for the  
economic development of underdeveloped countries. By developing clean energy and  
poverty-alleviation industries, it will increase the income of the poor, help improve their  
living standards, and lift them out of poverty.  
100%  
80%  
60%  
40%  
20%  
0%  
South  
Sudan  
Burundi  
Malawi  
Central  
Africa  
DR  
Congo  
Madagascar Mozambique Niger  
Somalia  
Sierra  
Leone  
Proportion of population without electricity access  
Proportion of poverty-stricken population  
Figure 3-3 Population without Access to Electricity in the Least Developed Countries  
GEI will improve living conditions. Through the interconnection and expansion of power  
grids, and the development of distributed clean energy, the poor in rural and remote  
areas can be provided with abundant and cheap electricity. With electricity, people  
have access to household appliances such as electric lights, televisions, telephones,  
refrigerators, and washing machines. While greatly improving their living conditions, it will  
also help poor people to have more opportunities to study, work and do business, so as  
to get rid of poverty as soon as possible. From 1990 to 2016, China’s per capita electricity  
consumption increased from 41 kWh to 584 kWh, reducing the number of people living in  
poverty from 760 million to 6.9 million, and lifting about 750 million people out of poverty.  
066  
3
GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
According to Pearson correlation coefficient analysisA, the correlation between per capita  
electricity consumption and the cumulative number of people out of poverty reaches 0.96  
(the maximum value was 1), as shown in Figure 3-4. This shows that ensuring electricity  
supply and increasing per capita electricity consumption play an important role in  
reducing poverty.  
700  
600  
500  
400  
300  
200  
100  
0
800  
700  
600  
500  
400  
300  
200  
100  
0
1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016  
Year  
Per capita household electricity  
consumption  
Cumulative population out of  
poverty  
Figure 3-4 China’s Per Capita Household Electricity Consumption and  
Population out of Poverty from 1990 to 2016  
GEI will develop poverty-alleviation industries. Relying on adequate electricity  
supply, poor areas are able to develop industries such as food processing, textile  
and manufacturing, so as to improve comprehensive processing capacity, realize the  
transformation from primary products to high-value-added products, drive local economic  
development, and increase employment and income. At the same time, they can also rely  
on the “Internet plus” e-commerce platform to establish a new model of “e-commerce plus  
poverty alleviation” to better promote the development of poverty-alleviation industries.  
GEI will increase the income of the poor. Many poor areas are remote but often rich  
in clean energy resources. For example, there are a large number of poor people in  
southwest and northwest China, but the southwest is rich in hydropower resources and  
the northwest scenic resources. Building distributed PV power, wind power and small  
hydropower stations in these areas can not only ensure the poor’s access to electricity,  
but also enable the selling of local surplus electricity through grids, thus increasing the  
income of the poor. China has stepped up efforts to carry out PV poverty alleviation and  
achieved remarkable results, see Column 3-1.  
Pearson correlation coefficient is used to measure the linear correlation between two variables X and Y,  
and its value is between -1 and 1.  
A
067  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Column 3-1 China’s Great Efforts in Promoting “PV Poverty Alleviation”  
PV poverty alleviation mainly involves the installation of solar panels on the roofs of  
farmers’ houses and agricultural greenhouses, so as to realize self-use through self-  
generation and surplus electricity to be on-grid, which can not only resolve farmers’  
electricity consumption problem, but also generate income for farmers, as shown  
in Figure 3-5. A 300-kW PV power station can achieve annual income of more than  
200,000 yuan, and under the condition of good quality and guaranteed operation  
and maintenance management, it can keep generating stable income for as long as  
20 years.  
By July 2020, China’s PV power for poverty-reduction had reached 26.49 GW,  
benefiting 4.18 million poor households. Counted as three people in each  
household, it is equivalent to helping more than 12 million poor people. It is the  
single poverty-reduction industry with the most extensive benefits so far, playing an  
important role in China’s poverty reduction and poverty alleviation cause.  
Figure 3-5 PV Power Generation on the Yellow Land  
068  
3
GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
3.2 Food Security  
Hunger and malnutrition are prominent problems threatening low-income groups,  
especially children. Despite a 2.7% increase in world grain output in 2019, the world’s  
starving population has increased for three consecutive years, exceeding 820 million in  
2018, an increase of nearly 10 million over 2017 [1]. About 113 million people are severely  
hungry, with two-thirds of them concentrated in Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of  
Congo, Ethiopia, Nigeria, South Sudan, Sudan, Syria and Yemen. Around the world, some  
155 million children are chronically malnourished, leading to the death of about 3.1 million  
children under the age of five each year.  
Low agricultural productivity and frequent natural disasters are important reasons for  
the global food shortage. On the one hand, in many developing countries, agriculture is  
still dominated by manual farming instead of automated production, thus resulting in low  
labor efficiency. On the other hand, grain yield reduction is greatly affected by climate  
change. The United Nations predicts that if the average temperature increases by 1℃,  
global wheat yield will decrease by 6% and rice yield by 10%. In 2016, a severe drought  
occurred in Africa and Central America, affecting 70%-80% of cultivated land [2]  
.
The SDG 2 of the 2030 Agenda calls for ending hunger, achieving food security and improved  
nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture. The principal tasks are to strengthen  
agricultural infrastructure and establish sustainable food production systems to eradicate  
hunger and ensure safe, nutritious and adequate food for all by 2030. GEI can provide  
sufficient electricity for agricultural development, make agriculture more resilient to disasters,  
promote production efficiency and smart agricultural development, and ensure food security.  
GEI will make agriculture more resilient to disasters. GEI can significantly reduce  
greenhouse gas emissions and pollutants from fossil fuels, effectively curb climate  
change, reduce the frequency and intensity of disasters such as floods, droughts,  
typhoons and acid rain, so as to cushion their impact on agriculture. It can also provide  
sufficient electricity for agricultural irrigation, and provide sufficient irrigation water for  
areas lacking fresh water by means of drilling pumping wells and seawater desalination,  
so as to improve drought resistance and guarantee agricultural water security.  
GEI will improve the efficiency of agricultural production. Agricultural electrification  
has advantages such as high efficiency, low cost, flexibility, stability and reliability.  
Specifically, one kilowatt power output is equivalent to that of 14 manual labor. GEI  
will accelerate the replacement of electricity in agricultural production, promote the  
popularization and application of equipment such as electric tractors, planters, sprayers,  
fertilizer applicators and harvesters, thus realizing the electrification and automation of  
production process, comprehensively improving production efficiency, bringing down  
production costs, and reduce farmland pollution. China has carried out successful practices  
in promoting agricultural electrification. From 2005 to 2018, China’s agricultural electricity  
consumption and per-hectare grain output both increased year by year. As shown in Figure 3-7,  
agricultural electricity consumption increased from 20.5 TWh to 39.7 TWh, and per-hectare  
grain output from 4642 kg/ha. to 5621 kg/ha., with a correlation of 0.93. This indicates that  
accelerating agricultural electrification plays an important role in increasing grain output.  
069  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Figure 3-6 Modern Agricultural Irrigation  
40  
35  
30  
25  
20  
5700  
5300  
4900  
4500  
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018  
Year  
Power consumption  
Per-hectare grain output  
Figure 3-7 China’s Agricultural Electricity Consumption and Per-Hectare Grain  
Output in 2005-2018  
GEI will promote the development of smart agriculture. Smart agriculture is a high-  
level form of agricultural production, which can improve the agricultural ecological  
environment and increase the output per unit mainly through intelligent monitoring of the  
production process. Through the construction of smart grids, smart greenhouses, soilless  
cultivation, and intelligent farming will be promoted. For example, tomatoes grown in  
smart greenhouses where the temperature and humidity, soil moisture, nutrients, and light  
intensity can be accurately monitored will see the yield doubled compared with those  
grown in traditional greenhouses.  
070  
3
GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
3.3 Good Health and Well-being  
Health is the basic premise for human survival and development. Currently, about 13  
million people die each year from air, water, soil pollution and climate change, accounting  
for a quarter of the world’s deaths. At least half of the world’s population lacks access to  
basic health-care servicesA, and more than 5 million children under the age of five die  
each year, with half of them concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa and 30% in South AsiaB.  
Life expectancy in Sub-Saharan Africa is 61 yearsC, well below the global average.  
Environmental pollution  
and energy shortage are  
the main causes of human  
health problems. The  
exploitation and utilization  
of fossil fuels has brought  
about environmental  
pollution, which exerts a  
fundamental impact on  
human health. In addition,  
modern medical services  
require reliable electricity  
supply, and the lack of  
electricity directly limits  
the operating hours of  
medical institutions and  
Figure 3-8 Kerosene Lamp Lighting in Areas without  
the application of modern  
medical equipment, and  
Access to Electricity  
also affects the working and living environment of medical workers. According to the WHO  
report [3], clinics with access to electricity in Kenya operate four hours more per day than  
those failing to access electricity, all electrified clinics in Egypt do not have a vaccine cold  
chain system, and health workers in Bangladesh prefer to live in electrified communities.  
The SDG 3 of the 2020 Agenda calls for ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being  
for all at all ages. The primary tasks are to significantly reduce the number of deaths  
and illnesses caused by air, water and soil pollution, improve the level of health care in  
underdeveloped countries and regions, and achieve universal health coverage. GEI will  
accelerate clean energy and electrification, reduce environmental pollution, help improve  
health care, and improve the well-being of vulnerable groups to achieve this goal.  
Source:https://www.who.int/zh/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/universal-health-coverage-(uhc)  
Source: https://www.who.int/zh/news-room/detail/18-09-2018-a-child-under-15-dies-every-5-seconds -  
around-the-world-  
A
B
Source: World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/en/.  
C
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GEI will reduce environment pollution. A clean energy-dominated system will effectively  
reduce environmental pollution from the production, transport and use of fossil fuels and  
significantly bring down the number of diseases and deaths caused by them. By 2050,  
the world will have seen emissions of SO2 dropping by 68 million tons, nitrogen oxide  
by 120 million tons, fine particulate matter by 15.6 million tons annually, and industrial  
wastewater emissions by 68% compared with 2015. Air, water and soil pollution will have  
been effectively controlled, and more than 10 million cases of related diseases will be  
reduced globally every year.  
GEI will improve medical conditions. GEI can provide sufficient and economic electricity  
to countries and regions lacking electricity. It will greatly promote the popularization and  
application of modern medical equipment such as medical testing equipment, life support  
system, vaccine cold chain system and surgical equipment. It will also provide a good  
working and living environment for medical workers and enable more people to enjoy  
high-quality medical services. By 2030, the gap in life expectancy between low-income  
countries and high-income countries will have been reduced by 3.5 to 4.5 years.  
GEI will improve the well-being of vulnerable groups. The improvement of electrification  
level will promote the popularization and application of smart home, unmanned vehicle,  
robot, advanced medical equipment, and automatic barrier-free facilities, so as to help the  
vulnerable groups including the elderly and the disabled improve their living conditions  
including daily life, travel, communications and medical treatment, improve the quality of  
life, let them enjoy modern electrical civilization, and improve their sense of happiness.  
Figure 3-9 Escalators Assist People with Mobility Disabilities  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
3.4 Fair and Inclusive Quality Education  
Education is the cornerstone of the development of a country and a nation. Global  
education situation is grim. 260 million children and teenagers are out of school, and 620  
million children and teenagers of primary and secondary school age do not reach the  
minimum level of reading and mathematics, more than 55% of the global total of children  
and teenagers. Globally, 750 million adults are illiterate, two-thirds of whom are women [4]  
.
Poverty and lack of electricity are the most important factors dampening the level and  
accessibility of education. If poverty cannot be eliminated, it will be impossible to solve  
the educational problems of developing countries, especially the least developed  
countries. Besides, the shortage of electricity leads to backward teaching conditions and  
infrastructure. More than half of the primary schools, junior middle schools and over 40%  
of the high schools in Sub-Saharan Africa do not have electricity supply [4], and modern  
educational facilities and media such as computers, projectors and the Internet cannot be  
used, which seriously affects the improvement of education level in the region.  
Figure 3-10 Classroom without Modern Electricity Services  
The SDG 4 of the 2030 Agenda calls for ensuring inclusive and equitable quality  
education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all. The main tasks are to  
enable all children of school age to complete free, equitable and quality primary and  
secondary education, to close the gender gap in education and to ensure that vulnerable  
groups have equal access to education and vocational training at all levels. GEI will help  
achieve this goal by reducing poverty, improving access to education through electricity,  
and promoting equity in education through Internet technology.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
GEI will increase the penetration of education. GEI can help reduce poverty in Sub-  
Saharan Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia. Through poverty reduction, it will raise the  
income level of people in poor areas, ensure that children and teenagers can afford to go  
to school and receive complete compulsory education on the basis of basic survival, as  
well as provide more opportunities for adults to receive vocational training, thus increasing  
the penetration of education.  
GEI will improve teaching conditions. GEI provides schools in underdeveloped regions  
with clean, economical and stable electricity, thus improving basic conditions such as  
lighting and heating and promoting the popularization of modern educational facilities  
such as computers and multimedia to guarantee teaching time, enrich teaching contents  
and means, attract more teaching people and improve teaching quality. GEIDCO funded  
the construction of power supply facilities for the Abay Silto School in Ethiopia, which  
greatly improved the teaching conditions of the school, see Column 3-2.  
Figure 3-11 Modern Teaching Facilities Powered by Electricity  
GEI will promote equitable education. GEI promotes the integration of energy  
technology and information technology. Relying on cloud education and other models,  
advanced educational methods, teaching contents and high-level teachers can be shared  
globally, so that people of different countries, regions, races, ages and genders can have  
equal access to all kinds of educational resources, improving the inclusiveness and equity  
of education.  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Column 3-2 GEIDCO’s Assistance to the Abay Silto School in Ethiopia  
The Abay Silto School, located in Gran Town, Oromia Region, Ethiopia, has a total  
of 825 students and teachers. The school used to only rely on diesel generator to  
generate electricity for two hours a day, which was not only costly, but also seriously  
affected the normal teaching activities. To completely solve the school power supply  
problem, GEIDCO has reached an agreement with the Government of Oromia and  
the Ethiopian Electric Utility to fund the construction of a 15 kV power distribution  
line for the school which has a length of five kilometers, as well as the installation of  
transformers and lighting facilities.  
The project completely solved the electricity problem of the school and ensured the  
normal operation of teaching activities. Compared with diesel power generation,  
it saves more than 80% of energy cost for the school every year, and lays a  
foundation for solving the follow-up power supply problems in villages along the  
power lines. Relevant departments and organizations such he African Union  
Commission, UNESCO, The Ethiopian Ministry of Electricity, the Government of  
Oromia, the Chinese Embassy in Ethiopia spoke highly of the project, considering  
it as an important practice and demonstration to address the problem of electricity  
supply and improve education level for educational institutions.  
Figure 3-12 Power Lines to Abay Silto School  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
3.5 Gender Equality  
Gender inequality is a universal problem all over the world. The global gap between  
women’s and men’s labor force participation is 22%A and that in managerial positions  
46%B. Women in Sub-Saharan Africa spend at least two to five hours a day collecting  
firewood and three to five times as much time doing housework as men. Even in high-  
income countries such as Japan, women spend twice as much time doing housework as  
men[5]. This objectively reduces the opportunity for women to participate in social activities  
on an equal footing and restricts women’s free and all-round development.  
Gender inequality is influenced by many factors, such as the ingrained traditional ideas  
and social division of labor. In the family, women spend more time on unpaid household  
chores; in career development, due to physiological and physical reasons, women are  
restricted and subject to unequal employment and promotion. Therefore, improving the  
efficiency of housework and creating more jobs that are beneficial to women are effective  
ways to improve women’s social status and promote gender equality.  
The SDG 5 of the 2030 Agenda calls for achieving gender equality and empowering all  
women and girls. The main tasks are to eliminate discrimination against women and girls,  
give women equal access to economic resources and other rights, and promote gender  
equality. GEI promotes the electrification and intelligentization of the whole society, drives  
the development of clean energy and other technology-intensive industries, improves the  
social status of women, and facilitates gender equality.  
GEI will reduce the burden of housework on women. Household electrification has  
been accelerated to make appliances such as electric cookers, washing machines,  
dishwashers and sweeping robots more intelligent and efficient, thus helping women  
free themselves from housework. In particular, for women in underdeveloped countries,  
automatic equipment can replace manual labor, significantly reducing housework time,  
and giving women more study and work time. For example, by replacing firewood with  
electricity, the time for women in Sub-Saharan Africa to collect firewood has been greatly  
reduced. From 1990 to 2017, the electrification rate in Sub-Saharan Africa increased from  
7.6% to 9.6%C, and the proportion of women in the labor force increased from 45.2% to  
46.4%D, with the correlation coefficient reaching 0.932, as shown in Figure 3-13.  
GEI will increase the employment opportunities of women. GEI can drive technological  
innovation in fields such as electricity, information, communication, control, materials, and  
transportation, and drive the transformation of labor-intensive industries into knowledge-  
intensive and technology-intensive ones. Therefore, it will provide more jobs and promotion  
Source: The United Nations estimates that women make up 39% of the workforce and men 61%, with a  
22% gap in labor force participation.  
A
B
Source: According to the United Nations, women hold 27% of managerial positions, while men hold  
73%. The gap in managerial positions is 46%.  
Source: The International Energy Agency website (www.iea.org).  
Source: The World Bank website (data.worldbank.org).  
C
D
076  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
opportunities for women. Research shows that by 2050, GEI will have created more than 300  
million jobs, most of which are intelligent and service-oriented ones such as research, design,  
marketing and operation, and women will access more development space, see Column 3-3.  
GEI will raise the status of women in society. GEI can create more opportunities for  
women in family life, career development, education and other aspects, help women  
enhance self-identity, self-confidence, pursue personal independence and economic  
independence, let women enjoy the same rights as men, and improve their social status.  
47  
46.5  
46  
10  
9
8
7
6
45.5  
45  
1990  
1995  
2000  
2005  
Year  
2010  
2015  
2017  
Proportion of women in the total labor force in sub-Saharan Africa  
Electrification rate in sub-Saharan Africa  
Figure 3-13 Changes in Electrification Rate and Female Labor Force Proportion in  
Sub-Saharan Africa  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
Column 3-3 Clean Energy Development Creates More Equal  
Employment Opportunities for Women  
[6]  
Research by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) shows  
that  
the global renewable energy industry has created a total of 11 million jobs. Of  
these, female workforce makes up 32%, 10 percentage points higher than that  
in the traditional fossil fuels industry. With the development of renewable energy,  
the proportion of women employed in the industry is expected to climb further. It  
is estimated that by 2030, 30 million jobs will be created in the global renewable  
energy industry, with women accounting for nearly half of the total employment,  
which will promote women to have a stable income source, and push for the  
development of equal gender relations. The proportion of renewable energy jobs  
and women’s employment in 2019 is shown in Figure 3-14.  
120  
100  
80  
68%  
60  
40  
20  
0
78%  
22%  
32%  
Ratio of male to female  
in oil & gas industry  
Ratio of male to female  
in renewable energy industry  
Female  
Male  
Figure 3-14 Ratio of Male to Female Employment in Oil &  
Gas and Renewable Energy Industries  
3.6 Clean Water and Sanitation  
Drinking water and sanitation are important issues concerning the people’s livelihood in  
countries around the world. The world’s freshwater resources are limited and unevenly  
distributed, with only 2.5% available for human use[7]. More than 40% of the world’s  
population is plagued by water shortages, 30% lack access to safe drinking water and  
60% lack access to clean sanitation facilities.  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
The shortage of fresh water and the deterioration of water quality are closely related to  
fossil fuels. The mining, processing and power generation of fossil fuels and nuclear fuels  
consume about 52 billion m3 of fresh water every year, among which the annual water  
consumption of coal-fired power plants around the world reaches 19 billion m3, which  
is equivalent to the annual water consumption of 500 million to 1 billion people in the  
world. Every ton of coal mined pollutes 1 to 1.5 m3 of fresh water, and every 1 million m3  
of shale gas produced generates 30 to 130 m3 of waste water. On a global scale, fossil  
fuels pollute 15 billion to 18 billion m3 of fresh water every year[8]. In addition, coal gangue,  
slime and other wastes generated by coal are piled up in the open air, causing secondary  
pollution to surface water, groundwater and rivers.  
The SDG 6 of the 2030 Agenda calls for ensuring availability and sustainable management  
of water and sanitation for all. The main tasks are to reduce the discharge of wastewater  
and waste dumping from production and household use, expand application of advanced  
technologies such as seawater desalination and wastewater treatment, and improve water  
and environmental sanitation. GEI will significantly improve global environmental hygiene  
by cutting the consumption of fresh water from fossil fuels, providing electricity for water  
pollution treatment, and reducing waste pollution.  
GEI will reduce water consumption and ensure freshwater supply. By 2050, clean  
energy will have accounted for more than 80% of electricity generation, saving 110 billion m3  
of water for electricity generation every year, and providing sufficient electricity for  
large-scale seawater desalination, thus fundamentally addressing the problem of water  
shortage. At present, the cost of electricity and heat accounts for about 40%-55% of the  
total cost of seawater desalination. GEI will greatly reduce the cost of electricity, which  
can enable the large-scale development of seawater desalination industry, realize the  
production of clean water with clean energy, and turn the sea into an inexhaustible fresh  
water reservoir.  
GEI will reduce water quality damage and promote water pollution control. By 2050,  
the share of fossil fuels in primary energy consumption will have been reduced to less  
than 30%, significantly reducing water pollution from fossil fuels. Supported by sufficient  
economic power and advanced technologies such as ion exchange and magnetic  
separation, large-scale sewage treatment can be realized to further resolve the problem  
of water pollution. The electricity consumption per ton of sewage treatment in Chinese  
cities and towns stands at about 0.2-0.3 kWh, and the electricity cost accounts for 25% -  
45% of the total cost of sewage treatment. As electricity prices fall and sewage treatment  
becomes more economical, the problem of water pollution will be effectively solved.  
GEI will reduce waste pollution and improve environmental sanitation. GEI will  
accelerate the development of biomass power generation, reduce pollution from rice  
husks, straws, biogas, wood wastes and garbage, and improve waste disposal capacity.  
By 2050, the installed capacity of garbage incineration power generation will have  
exceeded 200 GW, and 2.6 billion tons of garbage will be treated every year, realizing  
harmless and reductive disposal of wastes and significantly improving environmental  
sanitation.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
Column 3-4 GEI Alleviates Freshwater Shortage  
GEI will ensure adequate supply of fresh water. With GEI as the platform, efforts  
should be made to give full play to the advantages of continuous improvement of  
economic efficiency boasted by solar energy and wind energy, promote seawater  
desalination in areas rich in clean energy and convenient for seawater extraction,  
effectively reduce the cost of seawater desalination, realize large-scale promotion  
and utilization of seawater desalination, and guarantee the global fresh water  
supply. According to the current technical level, the cost of electricity and heat  
accounts for about 40%-55% of the total cost of seawater desalination, and 2-5 kWh  
of electricity is needed for every one cubic meter of seawater desalination. Relying  
on GEI, about 4.8 trillion m3 of desalination could be met by harnessing just 1.8%  
of the Sahara Desert’s solar power, equivalent to the current annual global water  
consumption, making the sea an inexhaustible fresh water reservoir.  
GEI will coordinate the conservation of fresh water. GEI will speed up the  
development and utilization of clean energy and greatly reduce the water resource  
consumption in fossil fuel power generation. Through overall planning of comprehensive  
development, complementary utilization and optimal allocation of water resources, it will  
also realize coordination between hydropower bases and agricultural irrigation, flood and  
waterlogging prevention, and ecological restoration, so as to minimize the consumption  
and loss of fresh water resources and realize efficient utilization of water resources.  
GEI will effectively promote sewage treatment. Relying on GEI to accelerate the  
promotion of clean replacement, it will significantly reduce the discharge of waste  
water from the extraction, transportation and use of fossil fuels. By 2050, the discharge  
of industrial waste water, chemical oxygen demand and ammonia nitrogen emission  
caused by fossil fuels will all be cut by more than 60%. In the meantime, sufficient,  
economic and sustainable clean electricity will also strongly promote and support the  
comprehensive treatment of sewage, so that the sewage problem can be effectively  
addressed. In China, for example, according to the running status of urban sewage  
treatment plants, per cubic meter of sewage treatment will consume about 0.2-0.3  
kWh of electricity, with electricity costs accounting for about 25%-45% of the total  
cost. Through the development of energy interconnection in China, just 200 square  
kilometers of solar power generation areas in the Taklamakan Desert could meet the  
country’s current annual electricity demand for sewage treatment and fully restore  
water resources.  
Advancing seawater  
desalination  
Developing  
desert PV power  
Promoting  
sewage treatment  
Figure 3-15 GEI Alleviates Freshwater Shortage  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
3.7 Sustainable Energy for All  
Sustainable energy is the fundamental guarantee for sustainable development. At  
present, three billion people around the world rely on firewood, charcoal and animal  
dung for cooking and heating, and 840 million people lack access to electricity. People  
without access to electricity are mainly distributed in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and  
Central and South America. The lack of universal access to affordable electricity seriously  
dampens the economic and social development of relevant countries. It is an urgent task  
for countries to accelerate the development of clean energy, improve energy efficiency  
and make sustainable modern energy available to all.  
The SDG 7 of the 2030 Agenda calls for ensuring access to affordable, reliable,  
sustainable and modern energy for all. The main tasks are to significantly increase the  
share of renewable energy in the global energy mix, double the rate of energy efficiency  
improvement worldwide, promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy, and  
ensure sustainable modern energy services for all. Building GEI will further clean replacement  
through large-scale development of clean energy, prompt electricity replacement through  
comprehensively accelerating electrification, and enable power supply for populace without  
access to electricity through facilitating the extension of transmission and distribution  
networks, which will help achieve this goal in a comprehensive and efficient way.  
GEI will boost clean replacement. Developing quality clean energy in a concentrated  
manner, coordinating the differences in time zones, seasons, resources and electricity  
prices, and optimizing the allocation of resources globally will generate huge scale effects  
and network effects, and greatly step up the scale and speed of clean energy development.  
According to a study by GEIDCO, GEI has tripled the current growth rate of clean energy. By  
2030, the global installed capacity of clean energy will reach 14TW, accounting for 64% of the  
total installed capacity, 4.6 times or 27 percentage points higher than that in 2017.  
GEI will bolster electricity replacement. By accelerating electrification in industry,  
commerce, transportation, construction and residential areas across the board, an electricity-  
centered energy consumption structure will be developed, which will greatly improve energy  
efficiency. By 2030, the share of global electricity in terminal energy will rise to 33%, and the  
global energy consumption per unit of GDP will have fallen from 0.18 toe/USD 1000 in 2015 to  
0.13 toe/USD 1000, with an average annual efficiency improvement rate of 2.1%. It will have  
increased by 1.2 times compared with the benchmark level from 1990 to 2015 (0.98% per  
year), thus achieving the goal set in the 2030 Agenda.  
GEI will promote universal address to electricity. Through the coordinated development  
of large clean energy bases and distributed power sources, and the acceleration of the  
interconnection and extension of transmission and distribution power grids, the penetration rate  
of electricity will be significantly enhanced, the cost of energy consumption brought down, and  
the population without access to electricity reduced. For example, China has stepped up efforts  
to promote the development of a nationwide interconnected energy network. The length of  
power transmission lines of 35 kV and above has reached 1.94 million kilometers. Electricity has been  
available to all households since 2015. By 2030, the global population without access to electricity  
will have fallen below 500 million and the electricity penetration rate will rise to 94%. Of these, the  
population in Sub-Saharan Africa without access to electricity will plunge sharply. See Column 3-5.  
081  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Column 3-5 African Energy Interconnection Accelerates  
Hydropower Development along the Congo River and Promotes  
Clean Electricity for All in Africa [9]  
Sub-Saharan Africa is not only severely short of electricity, but also faces high  
electricity costs, with an average price of 14 cents/kWh, two to three times the  
average price in developing countries. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),  
the average industrial electricity price is as high as USD 0.5-1.50, and the number  
of people without access to electricity is 66 million, accounting for more than 80%  
of the total population, making the country one of the countries with the largest  
population without electricity access in Africa.  
Africa is rich in hydropower resources, and thus large-scale hydropower  
development can effectively slash the electricity prices and alleviate the current  
situation of power shortage. The Congo River in Central Africa boasts sufficient  
water resources, with the explorable hydropower capacity reaching up to 150 GW,  
as shown in Figure 3-16. In particular, the downstream reach from Kinshasa to the  
estuary is more than 400 kilometers with a drop of 280 meters, and the exploitable  
capacity of hydropower technology is about 110 GW, making it the region with the  
most abundant hydropower resources in the world. At present, the proportion of  
hydropower developed is less than 2%, and the development potential is huge. It  
is estimated that when fully developed, the Congo River will be able to meet the  
current annual demand for electricity in Africa.  
Building African Energy Interconnection and accelerating the development of  
hydropower along the Congo River will significantly reduce electricity costs and  
contribute to the realization of the goal of clean energy for all in the Democratic  
Republic of the Congo and throughout Africa. Take the Inga Hydropower on the  
Congo River as an example. The planned installed capacity of the project is 60 GW  
and the project investment about USD 58 billion to 64 billion. Local feed-in tariffs are  
3-3.5 cents/kWh, just 5% of the current average industrial tariff in the DRC. Upon  
completion, the project can meet the country’s domestic electricity demand. At the  
same time, surplus hydropower can  
be delivered to the west, south, east  
and north Africa, and the feed-in  
tariff is 4.1-7.7, 4.3-5.3, 5.9-7.4 and  
5.4-8 cents/kWh respectively, which  
is 40%-60% lower than the average  
local electricity price, so that the  
project can provide clean, efficient,  
safe and reliable energy supply  
for the sustainable development of  
Africa.  
Figure 3-16 Congo River Rich in  
Hydropower Resources  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
3.8 New Drivers of Economic Growth  
Since the global financial crisis in 2008, the world economy has been in a continuous  
downturn, with economic growth standing at around 3%. Global growth slowed to 2.3% in  
2019 as trade and investment shrank. According to the data released by the International  
Labor Organization (ILO), the number of unemployed people in the world reached  
193 million in 2017, an increase of 5.6% over 2016 [10]. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic is  
ravaging the world, causing a severe recession in the world economy, a serious decline in  
investment and trade, and a sharp rise in global unemployment rate, resulting in a major  
crisis and challenge to the development of the world economy.  
Energy transition will bring important opportunities for world economic recovery and  
sustainable growth. Accelerating the development of clean energy and power infrastructure  
around the world to drive the development of related industries and technological  
innovation is an important path to boost the economy. From 2005 to 2018, global investment  
in clean energy surged from USD 90 billion to nearly USD 330 billion, with an average annual  
growth rate of more than 10%. It will continue to increase significantly in the future. AIn 2019,  
the global market value of electric vehicle industry was about USD 160 billion, and it is  
expected to exceed USD 800 billion by 2027, with a growth rate of 22% [11]. On the whole, the  
development space and potential of fields related with energy transition are enormous.  
The SDG 8 of the 2030 Agenda calls for promoting sustained, inclusive and sustainable  
economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. The main  
tasks are to accelerate the growth of per capita GDP of all countries. In particular, it is  
necessary to achieve an annual GDP growth rate of 7% for the least developed countries,  
create more jobs, vigorously develop high-value-added industries and upgrade productivity.  
GEI is a propeller for accelerating the world’s energy transition. With enormous investment,  
long industrial chain and strong driving force, it will create a new engine for economic growth.  
GEI will promote investment and trade in electricity. Clean energy and power grids belong  
to capital-intensive and technology-intensive industries. It is estimated that the total investment  
in GEI development will exceed USD 30 trillion to USD 40 trillion, which will promote power  
trade to become the main form of world energy trade. By 2030, the total cross-border  
power trade will have reached 8000 TWh, with a trade volume of about USD 700 billion.  
GEI will create more jobs. GEI will give a strong boost to the development of power  
infrastructure and upstream and downstream industries, and will have created 300 million  
new jobs around the world by 2050. In Asia, Africa, Central and South America where the  
world’s poor are concentrated, energy and its related industries will create 100 million,  
150 million and 5 million jobs respectively.  
GEI will promote industrial upgrading and model innovation. In industrial upgrading,  
while promoting energy transition, GEI will change the development pattern of traditional  
industries with high pollution and emissions, and drive the development of green and  
Source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance (https://www.newenergyfinance.com/).  
A
083  
Towards Sustainable Development  
low-carbon industries such as new energy, new materials, high-end equipment, electric  
vehicles and intelligent manufacturing. In model innovation, GEI is not only a carrier of  
clean energy, but also an important platform for carrying information and services. It  
will drive the transformation and upgrading of the traditional economy to the new digital  
economy, sharing economy and platform economy, foster new models and new forms of  
business, and achieve high-quality economic development. See Column 3-6.  
Column 3-6 China’s Energy Interconnection Spurs New  
Businesses for Economic Development  
1. Smart Internet of Vehicles (IoV)  
Smart IoV is an important port connecting electric vehicles, users and power grids,  
and a key hub for the interaction of electric vehicle data, user data and energy  
data. It has typical characteristics of the Internet of Things (IoT). China has built  
the world’s largest mart smart IoV platform with the most charging facilities and  
the widest range of connectivity. It has 11,000 changing and conversion stations  
in operation and 88,000 charging piles. Comprehensive services such as electric  
vehicle charging services, facility operation and maintenance, equipment access,  
user payment, car rental and sales are all intelligent, playing an important role in  
promoting the development of electric vehicles and related industries.  
2. PV Cloud Network  
PV cloud network is a comprehensive service platform that harnesses big data,  
cloud computing, IoT, artificial intelligence and other technologies, takes PV power  
station operation, meteorology, subsidized electricity charges as the main data  
sources, integrates the whole industrial chain resources, and realizes distributed  
PV planning, construction, operation, settlement, operation and maintenance functions.  
Relying on the PV cloud network, it can dynamically provide the distributed PV  
distribution, operation status and other big data analysis services across the country,  
to meet the needs of national competent departments and industry supervision, and  
effectively back up the implementation of government decisions and policies.  
3. Intelligent Energy Service System  
Smart energy service system is a smart device connecting the power grid (bulk  
power systems and micro grids) and the user side. It guides and regulates the power  
generation and power consumption curve through market means, and establishes a  
user-oriented smart energy control and service system, so as to meet the clean energy  
consumption, peak-valley adjustment, and voltage and frequency regulation. The smart  
energy town in Tianjin, China, has achieved over 99.999% power supply reliability,  
over 90% clean energy consumption, and over 15% energy conservation by building a  
service platform with comprehensive perception of power grid status, comprehensive  
connection of operation data, and open and shared energy ecology.  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
3.9 Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure  
In recent years, developing countries have made great progress in infrastructure and  
industrialization development, but they still face great challenges. More than 840 million  
people worldwide live without access to modern electricity, half the global population  
does not have access to the Internet, and Internet coverage only extends to 20% of  
the population in the least developed countries. From 2008 to 2018, the share of global  
manufacturing value added grew from 15.9% to 16.5% of GDP, an increase of just 0.6  
percentage points, while the share of the least developed countries grew at an average  
annual rate of just 2.5% from 2015 to 2018. Although global R&D investment is climbing  
year by year, developing countries lag far behind. In 2016, R&D investment in Sub-  
Saharan Africa and West Asia accounted for 0.42% and 0.83% of GDP respectively, far  
lower than Europe and North America’s 2.21%[4].  
Adequate and economical power supply is a prerequisite for infrastructure construction  
and industrialization. In infrastructure, energy network, transportation network and  
information networ are the three most important infrastructures in modern society,  
among which the energy network dominated by power grids plays a fundamental role  
in guaranteeing the other two. Electrified transportation facility such as electric vehicles,  
electrified railways, electric ships pose a growing demand for electricity. Mobile terminals,  
routers, servers and other information and communication equipment all need high-  
quality electricity. In 2019, the global data center and data network consumed 450 TWh  
of electricity, accounting for 2% of the global terminal electricity consumption [12]. In  
industrial development, the global industrial sector’s electricity consumption in 2017  
[13]  
reached up to 8900 TWh, accounting for 41.6% of the total electricity consumption  
,
making it the sector with the largest electricity consumption. The lag of power facilities  
restricts the industrialization of many developing countries. For example, due to the lack  
of stable electricity supply, the proportion of industrial added value in Nigeria’s GDP  
dropped from 35.4% in 1990 to 25.7% in 2018, and that in Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda  
in East Africa also plunged significantly from 2012 to 2017. The severe power shortage  
problem in South and Southeast Asian countries worsens the investment environment in  
the region and restricts the industrial development of these countries.  
The SDG 9 of the 2030 Agenda calls for building resilient infrastructure, promoting  
inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and fostering innovation. The major tasks are  
to develop high-quality, reliable, sustainable and disaster-resilient infrastructure, including  
cross-border infrastructure, to increase the share of industry in employment and GDP, to  
support developing countries in scientific and technological research and innovation, and  
to enhance the technological capacity of the industrial sector. GEI will provide high-quality  
and sustainable electricity to all countries in a clean and green way, and greatly promote  
global infrastructure construction, industrial development and technological innovation.  
GEI will improve infrastructure. GEI is a modern energy system featuring clean energy  
production, globalized allocation and electrified consumption, hence an advanced version  
of the energy network. GEI will accelerate the development of power infrastructure. It  
is estimated that by 2030, the length of high-voltage transmission lines of 220 kV and  
above will have doubled from 2015 to 5.3 million kilometers, among which the length  
085  
Towards Sustainable Development  
of transnational transmission lines will have exceeded 400,000 kilometers. The rapid  
development of energy network will provide reliable green electricity for transportation  
network and information network, and realize the integration of energy, transportation  
and information network via shared channels, shared facilities, terminal co-construction  
and functional integration, so as to comprehensively improve the level of infrastructure  
development in all countries around the world. See Column 3-7.  
GEI will accelerate the industrialization of developing countries. GEI will fundamentally  
solve the problem of power shortage, a major problem restricting the industrialization  
of developing countries. With sufficient economic and electric power as the guarantee,  
developing countries can develop various industries such as iron and steel, metallurgy,  
chemicals, automobile, electromechanical, textile and food, so as to accelerate the  
process of industrialization. For example, Africa can rely on its dual advantages in clean  
energy and mineral resources to build the African Energy Interconnection, realize the co-  
development of electricity, mining, metallurgy, industry and trade, improve its industrial  
system, and achieve a higher level and sustainable development. See Column 3-8.  
GEI will promote technical innovation. The development and application of clean  
energy, ultra-high voltage and smart grid technologies make it technically feasible to  
build GEI. GEI will also pose new demands for technological development, and further  
promote breakthroughs in key technologies such as efficient and clean power generation,  
UHV VSC DC, UHV submarine cables, high-capacity energy storage, and power source,  
grid, load and storage coordination. Meanwhile, state-of-the-art technologies such as  
information technology, control technology, materials technology and environmental  
protection technology will get integrated with energy and electric power technology, and  
be deeply applied in GEI, which will promote cross-cutting convergence and integrated  
innovation of technologies in different disciplines and fields.  
086  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Column 3-7 Integration of Energy, Transportation and  
Information Networks  
The ETI (energy, transportation and information integration) means that energy,  
transportation and information networks are closely linked in networked forms,  
business functions and resource utilization, and form a global comprehensive  
infrastructure platform through channel sharing, facility sharing, terminal co-  
construction and function integration. The ETI integration is a high-level form of  
global infrastructure connectivity. It will promote the upgrading of the traditional  
industrial economy to the new network economy, digital economy and sharing  
economy, and make economic and social development highly electrified, intelligent,  
globalized and people-oriented.  
Information  
Network  
Energy  
Network  
Transportation  
Network  
Global interconnection basically realized  
Interconnection realized  
Figure 3-17 Energy, Transportation and Information Integration  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
Building GEI will give a strong boost to the integrated development of the  
energy, transportation, and information networks. The energy, transportation, and  
information networks are like the blood vessels, limbs and nerves of the human  
body. 1.37 million kilometers of railways and 380,000 kilometers of expressways,  
together with aviation and sea transport worldwide, have constituted a  
comprehensive global transport network. The world has interconnected information  
networks through more than 250 undersea optical cables and more than 700  
communications satellites. The energy interconnection clearly lagged behind,  
compared with that of the transportation and information. With the breakthroughs  
made in UHV technology, the scope of energy allocation has become larger, the  
capacity of allocation stronger, and the efficiency of allocation higher. Based on the  
UHV technology, the global “vascular system” will certainly take shape, pushing the  
world into a new era featuring ETI integration development.  
Electric vehicles are characterized by energy, transportation and information, and  
are a miniature landscape for the development of ETI integration, as shown in  
Figure 3-18. With regard to energy, electric vehicles are both electrical equipment  
and mobile energy storage equipment, which can interact with power grids in a two-  
way manner and help improve power grids’ flexible regulation ability. Regarding  
traffic, electric vehicles are a kind of clean and efficient means of transportation.  
The charging network can be closely integrated with transportation facilities such as  
expressways, urban main roads and parking lots. In terms of information, electric  
vehicles are mobile communication terminals, while charging equipment is fixed  
communication terminals. Thus, vehicle-to-vehicle, vehicle-to-charging pile, and pile-to-  
pile can exchange real-time information through vehicle networking technology.  
Looking into the future, with the increasing  
Communication  
Network  
maturity of autopilot technology, self-  
driving electric vehicles will enter  
people’s lives and change their travel  
experience. Users can connect to the  
vehicle networking platform through  
mobile phones and send requests; nearby  
electric vehicles provide feedback to  
users on information including electric  
quantity, vehicle condition and available  
time, so that users can choose cars  
independently or the system can  
intelligently match the appropriate  
Transportation  
Network  
Power Network  
Figure 3-18 EV Technology Embodies ETI  
Integration  
cars for users; the electric car chosen adopts self-driving technology and carries the  
user to the destination automatically. When the trip ends, the car will connect with the  
surrounding charging network through the IoV platform and automatically goes to the  
charging pile for charging. During the charging process, a large number of electric  
vehicles participate in the grid regulation through technologies such as V2G to ensure  
the safety and reliability of the grids.  
088  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Column 3-8 A New Model for the Co-development of Electricity, Mining,  
Metallurgy, Industry and Trade  
Many countries in Africa, Southeast Asia and South America, rich in clean energy  
and mineral resources, also face urgent development challenges. On the one hand,  
the abundant clean energy cannot be developed due to lack of capital, market and  
related technologies, resulting in power shortage. On the other hand, the mineral  
resources can only be exported as primary products because of the lack of enough  
electricity to carry out deep smelting and processing. The resource advantages of  
these developing countries cannot be brought into full play, which has become a  
bottleneck restricting their economic development.  
On the basis of in-depth research, GEIDCO proposed a new model of interconnected  
development of co-development of electricity, mining, metallurgy, industry and trade.  
This model will synergize Africa’s advantages in clean energy and mineral resources,  
develop large clean energy bases and build regional energy interconnection, so as to  
forge a coordinated value chain, in which sufficient and economically competitive clean  
electricity will be a reliable powerhouse to the development and production at mines,  
metallurgy bases and industrial parks, promoting export to shift from primary products  
to high value-added products and then give rise to a virtuous cycle of “investment,  
development, production, export and reinvestment”. It will comprehensively  
improve the size quality and efficiency of Africa’s economy. The co-development of  
electricity, mining, metallurgy, industry and trade is shown in Figure 3-19.  
Electricity  
Mining  
Metallurgy  
Manufacturing  
Trade  
Figure 3-19 Co-development of Electricity, Mining, Metallurgy, Industry and Trade  
The co-development of electricity, mining, metallurgy, industry and trade has  
effectively will solve the development dilemma faced by Africa and other regions.  
According to this model, during the project development, the power generation,  
power transmission and electricity use parties sign contracts to form an enterprise  
group featuring benefit sharing, risk sharing and mutual support. Relying on  
the endogenous value of the project, enterprise capital and credit, financing is  
made from syndicates, consortia and social capital to ensure the implementation  
of the project, as shown in Figure 3-20. Based on this idea, the development of  
clean energy will solve the problems of electricity market and financing, and the  
mining and smelting of mineral resources have solved the problems of electricity  
supply, thus breaking the shackles restricting local economic development. At the  
industrial level, it will change the development mode of different industries fighting  
for themselves and lacking overall planning in the past, and develop an industrial  
chain featuring coordinated development, so as to realize cluster development  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
and accelerate industrialization. At the national level, it will give full play to the  
complementary advantages of different countries in terms of resource endowment,  
geographical location and economic structure, promote cross-border resource  
integration, foster a large market, and benefit all countries to achieve coordinated  
development and common prosperity among them.  
It will bring great benefits to push for the co-development of electricity, mining,  
metallurgy, industry and trade. Take Africa as an example. In terms of energy  
supply, by 2050, clean energy on the continent will have accounted for more than  
45% of primary energy, the average electricity price will have been more than 5  
cents/kWh lower than it is today, and the annual electricity cost will have been  
slashed by more than USD 160 billion. In terms of economic growth, by 2050,  
the total output value of Africa’s industries such as electrolytic aluminum and steel  
will have exceeded USD 480 billion, and its exports USD 100 billion; exports of  
clean power will have exceeded USD 36 billion; infrastructure construction and  
industrialization will have created more than 100 million jobs.  
Enterprise cluster  
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African countries  
Financial  
institution  
HFOFSBUJPO  
#FOFGJUꢀTIBSJOH  
Mineral  
resources  
#BOLJOHꢀ  
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Multi-party  
contracts  
signed  
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HSPVQ  
3JTLꢀTIBSJOH  
1PXFSꢀ  
1PXFSꢀ  
USBOTNJTTJPO  
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Clean  
energy  
.VUVBMꢀTVQQPSU  
Social capital  
ćć  
Co-development of electricity, mining,  
metallurgy, industry and trade  
Figure 3-20 Integrated Development of Electricity, Mining, Metallurgy, Industry and Trade  
3.10 Reducing National and Regional Inequalities  
Unbalanced development between countries and regions is an important factor that  
sparks national conflicts and regional conflicts and undermines the international order.  
According to the Global Wealth Migration Review [14] released by wealth research firm  
New World Wealth in 2019, the gap between the southern and northern hemispheres is  
widening. The total private wealth of the 10 richest countries exceeds USD 151 trillion,  
accounting for about three-quarters of the total (USD 204 trillion), as shown in Table 3-2.  
Within a country, unbalanced development and inequality also exist among different  
regions and groups of people. In 2018, there were about 40 million poor people in the  
United States, accounting for nearly 12% of the total population, with a Gini coefficient of  
0.485A, reflecting a huge gap between the rich and the poor.  
Gini coefficient is a commonly used indicator to measure the income gap of a country. Below 0.2 means  
absolute average income; 0.2-0.3 means relatively average; 0.3-0.4 means relatively reasonable; 0.4-0.5  
means a large income gap; more than 0.5 means a wide income gap.  
A
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Table 3-2 Ranking of the 10 Richest Countries in 2018 [17]  
Ranking  
Country  
USA  
Wealth (Trillions of dollars)  
1
2
60.707  
23.563  
19.131  
9.125  
China  
Japan  
UK  
3
4
5
Germany  
India  
8.790  
6
8.148  
7
Australia  
Canada  
France  
Italy  
6.020  
8
6.009  
9
5.851  
10  
3.849  
Total  
Note: The wealth in this table refers to the total private wealth of a country.  
151.193  
There exist many reasons behind the unbalanced development among countries and  
regions, such as economic system, political system, scientific and technological strength,  
resource endowment and so on. From the perspective of energy, in today’s world  
dominated by fossil fuels, a few countries have the say over the right to exploit and make  
pricing for energy resources such as oil and natural gas. While promoting economic  
growth in relevant countries, it has also led to energy shortages and poverty in many  
developing countries, exacerbating national and regional polarization.  
The SDG 10 of the 2030 Agenda calls for reducing inequalities within and among  
countries. The principal tasks are to realize and maintain the income growth of the 40%  
bottom population by 2030, empower and promote the status and role of developing  
countries in international economic and financial institutions, and step up development  
assistance to the least developed countries to ensure balanced opportunities. GEI will help the  
world usher in a new era of clean energy. Countries will work together to build interconnected  
power networks, realize clean energy sharing, promote the free flow of factors of production  
and coordinated development, and reduce imbalances and inequalities.  
GEI will promote complementarity of resource markets. The world is abundant in clean  
energy, and the resources of different countries and regions are naturally complementary,  
which determines that the relationship between countries in the clean energy era should  
be energy sharing rather than competition. Globally, most of the solar, wind power and  
hydropower resources are widely distributed in developing countries. Relying on GEI,  
developing clean energy and delivering it to developed countries and regions will help  
developing countries turn their resource advantages into economic advantages, narrow  
the north-south gap, and make the global economic layout more balanced. For example,  
North Africa can reap significant benefits by delivering its abundant solar power to  
Europe, see Column 3-9. Electricity interconnection will boost the balanced development  
of different regions in China. For example, as the eastern region is economically  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
developed and has a strong demand for energy, while the western region is relatively  
economically backward but rich in resources, the construction of UHV grids will deliver  
clean electricity from the west to the east. The electricity delivered reached up to 300 TWh  
in 2019, and the electricity sold in the west generated a revenue of more than 85 billion  
yuan, playing an important role in the coordinated development of the east and the west.  
GEI will facilitate the circulation of factors of production. There are differences in  
the geographical distribution of factors of production around the world. Most developing  
countries have prominent advantages in primary factors of production such as resources  
and labor forces, but lack advanced ones such as talent and technology. While developed  
countries boast advanced technology and capital, but face high labor costs. Building  
GEI will take energy infrastructure connectivity as a link, promote financial integration,  
technology transfer and personnel exchanges between developed and developing  
countries through cross-border energy and power cooperation, and achieve global  
balance and optimal allocation of various factors of production.  
GEI will enhance development capacity. GEI can promote the co-development of  
electricity, mining, metallurgy, industry and trade in Africa, Latin America, Asia and other  
regions.Through financial assistance, technical support and industrial support, it will  
introduce advanced development models, management mechanisms and innovative  
technologies to developing countries, especially the least developed countries, to ramp  
up their internal driving force for development. In recent years, China has given full play  
to its advantages in technology, equipment and engineering construction by assisting  
in the construction of a number of demonstrative energy projects in Africa, such as the  
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, the Ethiopia-Kenya 500 kV DC power transmission  
and transformation project, and the Egypt’s 500 kV backbone network upgrade project,  
making important contributions to promoting Africa’s economic development, adding jobs,  
improving people’s livelihood and cultivating talent.  
Column 3-9 Grid Interconnection between North Africa and Europe  
Contributes to North African Economic and Social Development  
North Africa is one of the regions with the most abundant solar energy resources  
in the world, with a total level of exposure exceeding 2000 kWh/m2 per year in  
most regions, and up to 2800 kWh/m2 in and around the Sahara Desert. Therefore,  
developing solar power resources in North Africa can not only meet the demand  
for electricity in the region, but also deliver electricity directly to the European  
load center across the Mediterranean Sea. According to a study by GEIDCO, by  
developing a number of large-scale solar power bases and building Morocco-  
Portugal, Morocco-Spain, Algeria-France, Algeria-France-Germany, Tunisia-Italy,  
Egypt-Greece-Italy, Egypt-Turkey DC power transmission projects along the Nile in  
Egypt, and in Northwestern Libya, Northern Tunisia, Eastern Algeria and Southern  
Morocco, as shown in Figure 3-21, the transmission capacity can reach up to 43  
GW, and about 85 TWh of electricity can be transmitted annually, which will generate  
economic income of USD 4 billion for the North African countries each year.  
092  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Figure 3-21 North Africa-Europe Grid Interconnection  
3.11 Clean, Low-carbon Smart Cities  
Cities are an important symbol of human civilization and progress. The global urban area  
is only 3% of the total land area, while the population and GDP account for 55% and 75%  
respectively. More than 80% of the world’s cities do not meet World Health Organization  
(WHO) standards for air quality, and air pollution causes 7 million deaths each year. More  
than 100 million people live without electricity access in cities around the world, and cities  
in Sub-Saharan Africa suffer an average of 700 hours of blackouts a year. The United  
Nations predicts that the global urban population will grow to 5 billion in 2030, an increase  
of 19% over 2018, with cities in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa leading the way, which will  
pose severe challenges to urban infrastructure, energy supply, sanitation and so on.  
Reliance on fossil fuels and poor infrastructure are the root causes of urban pollution  
and power shortages. Global urban energy consumption accounts for 60-80%A of the  
total consumption, and the CO2 and air pollutants generated account for 75% and 80%  
of the global total respectively. In many countries, the structure of urban power grids  
is disordered, the equipment is old, and the reliability of power supply is poor, which  
seriously affects urban public services.  
Source: International Mayors Communication Center: Sustainable Development Goal 11 Interpretation  
(http://www.hk-imcc.com/zh/).  
A
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Towards Sustainable Development  
The SDG 11 of the 2030 Agenda calls for making cities and human settlements inclusive,  
safe, resilient and sustainable. The main tasks are to speed up the construction of urban  
infrastructure, reduce the negative environmental impact per capita in cities, pay special  
attention to improving air quality, strengthen urban public services, significantly reduce  
the losses caused by floods and other disasters, and ensure that everyone has access  
to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services. GEI can accelerate the  
process of global urbanization and play an important role in promoting green and low-  
carbon urban development, improving the level of intelligence and operational efficiency.  
GEI will promote urbanization in developing countries. GEI can drive the development  
of infrastructure and industrialization in developing countries. Industrialization spawns  
a large amount of labor demand, leads rural population to move to cities, and promotes  
urbanization. The industrialization rate of developing countries is positively correlated  
with its urbanization rate. From 1952 to 2000, the industrialization rate of China increased  
from 17.6% to 44.3%, and the urbanization rate from 12.5% to 36.1%[15]. The correlation  
coefficient of the two is 0.83, as shown in Figure 3-22.  
50  
40  
30  
20  
10  
0
1952  
1960  
1970  
1980  
1990  
2000  
Year  
Industrialization rate  
Urbanization rate  
Figure 3-22 Trends of China’s Industrialization Rate and Urbanization Rate  
GEI will accelerate green and low-carbon urban development. On the energy supply  
side, the clean energy base is connected to the urban load center through UHV power  
transmission, thus replacing the local high-pollution and high-emission fossil fuels, so  
that clean electricity can be transmitted from afar, see Column 3-10. On the energy  
consumption side, electric vehicles, electric boilers, electric heating, electric cookers  
and other electricity replacement will be promoted to reduce the consumption of fossil  
fuels. At the same time, relying on large power grids, efforts will be made to promote the  
interconnection and consumption of distributed clean energy and improve the efficiency  
and reliability of comprehensive energy utilization. By building an interconnected energy  
network, China’s eastern and central regions, where large cities are concentrated, will  
reduce their annual coal consumption by 480 million tons, CO2 by 1.3 billion tons, SO2,  
nitrogen oxide, soot and other pollutants by more than 6.3 million tons by 2025.  
094  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
GEI will advance the development of smart cities. Smart grids are an important  
component of a smart city. The integration of urban energy system and information  
technology can realize coordinated and optimized operation of transportation, lighting,  
heating and refrigeration, and improve the efficiency of public services. It can also  
effectively manage electricity systems such as home energy storage equipment,  
distributed power supply and electric vehicle charging facilities, and realize intelligent  
services such as mobile terminal power purchase and remote control of home appliances,  
so as to improve the quality and efficiency of life. By the end of 2018, China had installed  
more than 600 million smart electricity meters, with 3.3 million electric cars on the road  
and more than 1.22 million charging piles for electric cars, giving a strong boost to the  
development of smart cities.  
Column 3-10 UHV DC Technology Promotes Green and Low-Carbon  
Development in Shanghai, China  
The UHV AC-DC grid has become a major energy channel for China’s power  
transmission from west to east and from north to south. It has vigorously promoted  
the development of clean energy in China’s western and northern regions, and  
promoted the green and low-carbon development of cities in eastern and central  
China. Of these, Xiangjiaba Hydropower Station- Shanghai 800 kV UHV DC  
transmission project can transmit Sichuan’s hydropower to Shanghai, covering a  
distance of 2000 km. The project can meet 40% of Shanghai’s electricity demand,  
and can reduce local CO2 by 50 million tons, SO2, nitrogen oxide, soot and other  
pollutants by about 240,000 tons every year, effectively promoting the city’s green  
and low-carbon development, as shown in Figure 3-23.  
Figure 3-23 Sketch of Xiangjiaba-Shanghai UHV DC Project Line  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
3.12 Sustainable Consumption and Production  
The shortage of resources poses a severe challenge to the sustainable development of  
mankind. The Living Planet Report 2012 released by the WWF predicts that the global  
population will grow to 9 billion-10 billion by 2050. If the current mode of production  
and consumption continues, human demand for such natural resources as farmland,  
woodland, fishery and pasture will be equivalent to the resources of 2.9 earths to  
sustain their life [16]. In particular, energy resources are scarce. According to the current  
development intensity, the world’s proven reserves of coal, oil and natural gas can only  
be exploited for 132 years, 50 years and 50 years, respectively. At the same time, global  
energy demand continues to grow. In 2017, global primary energy consumption reached  
20 Gtce, with an average annual growth rate of 2% from 2000 to 2017. At this rate, the  
earth’s oil and gas resources will be exhausted around the middle of this century.  
The limitation of fossil fuels resources and its pollution emission are the fundamental  
causes of unsustainable energy consumption and production. It is of great urgency to  
transform the energy structure dominated by fossil fuels and construct the sustainable  
production and consumption pattern dominated by clean energy. In addition, with the  
progress of electrochemistry and other technologies, the use of low-cost clean power  
generation to produce fuels and raw materials will also play an important role in mitigating  
the shortage of human resources.  
The SDG 12 of the 2030 Agenda calls for ensuring sustainable consumption and  
production patterns. The main tasks are to achieve sustainable management and efficient  
use of natural resources and to substantially reduce waste generation through prevention,  
emission reduction, recycling and reuse. GEI will replace fossil fuels with clean energy to  
achieve sustainable energy production and consumption, and realize the regeneration  
and recycling of means of production via electrosynthesis of fuels and raw materials, so  
as to push for the building of a resource-conserving society.  
GEI will achieve sustainable energy production and consumption. The inexhaustible  
clean energy resources will completely replace the limited fossil fuels, which will not only  
provide sustainable energy supply for mankind, but also significantly cut the pollutants  
and wastes generated by fossil fuels. By 2030, the world could reduce its fossil fuels  
consumption by 8 Gtce a year, equivalent to half the amount of fossil fuels consumption in  
2017;the proportion of electric energy in the terminal energy consumption will increase to  
33%, and a sustainable production and consumption pattern dominated by clean energy  
and centered on electricity will basically take shape.  
GEI will promote the regeneration and circulation of production materials. Scarce  
coal, oil and natural gas will return to be used as raw materials, thus playing a greater  
value. At the same time, GEI has greatly reduced the cost of electricity, and promoted  
technological breakthroughs in electrohydrogen production, electrosynthesis of fuels and  
raw materials, thus realizing the recycling of fuels and raw materials such as hydrogen,  
methane, methanol and gasoline, and providing continuous means of production for  
human sustainable development. See Column 3-11.  
096  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
GEI will promote the building of a resource-conserving society. GEI gives full play to  
the advantages of clean electricity which is economic and efficient, thus greatly improving  
energy efficiency, and achieving maximum benefits with fewer resources. In addition, it  
will encourage people to embrace the concept of green, low-carbon development, energy  
conservation and environmental protection, guide rational consumption, and foster a  
sense of thrift, so as to help build a resource-conserving society.  
Column 3-11 Electrosynthesis of Fuels and Raw Materials Meets  
Mankind’s Needs on Sustainable Development  
In such fields as metallurgy, chemical, freight, and shipping, it is difficult and low-  
efficient to adopt direct electricity replacement. Through power-to-gas technology,  
fuels such as hydrogen and methane and raw materials produced by clean  
electricity are applied in the above fields, which will become the bond linking clean  
electricity with some terminal energy consumption fields. The basic principle of  
electrosynthesis of fuels and raw materials is to reduce and recombine the carbon  
element in CO2 and hydrogen element in water with electricity as energy to produce  
materials that can be reused. Under the current technical level, electrolysis water to  
produce hydrogen can provide hydrogen fuel, or hydrogen can be used to reduce  
the carbon in CO2, so as to produce methane (the main component of natural gas),  
methanol and other simple organic matters, and to further generate a variety of  
complex fuels and raw materials.  
The electrohydrogen production technology mainly includes alkaline electrolytic cell,  
proton penetration membrane and high-temperature solid oxide electrolytic cell. The  
alkaline electrolytic cell technology is mature, the equipment structure is simple, the  
electrolytic efficiency can reach about 60%, thus boasting the fast start-stop speed  
(within minutes) and the full power adjustment ability, hence the current mainstream  
electrolytic water hydrogen production method. Proton penetration membrane  
technology can effectively reduce the volume and resistance of electrolytic cell, so  
that the electrolytic efficiency can be raised to 70%-80%, and the power regulation  
becomes more flexible. Electrolytic water hydrogen production technology is  
expected to become the mainstream, but the equipment cost is relatively high. The  
high temperature solid oxide electrolytic cell uses solid oxide as electrolyte. Due to the  
improvement of the thermodynamic and chemical kinetics characteristics of electrolytic  
reaction at high temperature (800°C), the electrolytic efficiency can be increased to  
about 90%, but the technology is still in the demonstration stage.  
There are mainly two technological routes for electrosynthesis of methane. One is  
to electrolyze water to make hydrogen, and then to reduce CO2 through hydrogen  
to produce methane. This technique is relatively mature, and the selectivity of the  
reaction and the efficiency of substance transformation can reach more than 90%.  
The other is direct electrolysis of CO2 dissolved in water or other solvents, which  
requires high preparation of catalysts. So, it is still in the experimental stage.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
At present, the key factor restricting the development of electrosynthesis of fuels  
and raw materials hinges on the cost of energy. As shown in Figure 3-25, the cost  
of electrosynthesis of organics mainly comes from the cost of electricity, equipment  
depreciation and operation and maintenance, among which the cost of electricity  
accounts for more than 70%. At the current electricity price of 5 cents/kW, the cost of  
electrosynthesis of methane is about USD 1.50/m3, well above the end-user natural gas  
purchase price of USD 0.4-0.7/m3. The cost of electrosynthesis of methanol is about USD  
0.9/kg, which is also much higher than the futures price of methanol (USD 0.3-0.4/kg).  
Electrolytic cell  
Wind turbine generator system  
Power grid  
Hydrogen  
Storage  
Distribution  
plant  
Hydrogen fuel  
Combined heat and  
power generation  
Fuel gas station  
Figure 3-24 Clean Electrohydrogen Production and Its Comprehensive Utilization  
By building GEI, clean energy will rapidly become more economical, and by  
2050, clean energy generation will cost less than 2 cents/kWh. As the technology  
of electrosynthesis of fuels and raw materials improves and equipment costs fall,  
the cost of electrosynthesis of methane is expected to fall to USD 0.43 to 0.57/m3,  
which is in line with current gas terminal prices, and the cost of electrosynthesis  
of methanol is expected to drop to USD 0.28-0.37/kg, which is comparable to the  
current price of producing methanol from fossil fuels sources. Therefore, GEI can  
meet the human’s needs for sustainable development of energy and raw materials.  
Electrosynthesis of methane  
Electrosynthesis of methanol  
Operation and  
maintenance  
costs 8%  
Operation and  
maintenance  
costs 8%  
Auxiliary  
equipment 9%  
Auxiliary  
equipment 7%  
Methanation  
equipment 2%  
Methanolizing  
equipment 2%  
Hydrogen  
Hydrogen  
production  
Electricity  
consumption  
for hydrogen  
production 70%  
production  
equipment 9%  
Electricity  
consumption for  
hydrogen  
equipment 10%  
Electricity  
consumption for  
methanation 3%  
Electricity  
production 61%  
consumption for  
methanolizing 11%  
Figure 3-25 Cost Structure of Electrosynthesis of Methane and Methanol  
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3.13 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Mitigation  
Climate change is a major crisis facing mankind, and its severity, urgency and complexity  
are unprecedented. To realize the goal of keeping global temperature rise to well below  
1.5℃, global carbon emissions should be cut in half by 2030, with room for emissions of  
only 400 GtC, and only about10 years of window period left for taking actions.  
The massive use of fossil fuels is at the root of the climate change issue. Since the  
Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels has emitted a cumulative 2200 GtCO2, accounting for  
more than 70% of total greenhouse gas emissions. To reduce greenhouse gas emissions,  
efforts must be made to cut fossil fuels consumption at source.  
The SDG 13 of the 2030 Agenda calls for taking urgent action to combat climate change  
and its impacts. The main tasks are to strengthen international cooperation and financing,  
integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and plans, and mitigate,  
adapt to and reduce the impact of climate change. GEI will provide technologically advanced  
and economically efficient solutions which can be promoted and implemented for achieving  
the temperature control goal of the Paris Agreement by implementing clean replacement  
and electricity replacement, strengthening the interconnection of power grids, and  
accelerating the overall decarbonization of the energy system.  
GEI will achieve carbon reduction targets. After detailed modeling and calculation, by  
building GEI, energy carbon emissions will peak by 2025, realize net zero by 2050, and  
cumulative carbon emissions will be about 360 billion tons from 2020 to 2100, achieving  
the target of controlling global temperature rise to 1.5℃. Of these, the cumulative emission  
reduction realized by clean replacement is 1.8 trillion tons, accounting for 47%; that by  
electricity replacement is 11,000 tons, accounting for 30%; that by energy efficiency  
enhancement is 4000 tons, accounting for 11%. The GEI emission reduction path is shown  
in Figure 3-26.  
90  
BAU plan  
80  
11%  
70  
Energy Efficiency  
60  
GEI Clean and  
Electricity  
Replacement  
contribute 80%  
of the reduction in  
cumulative carbon  
dioxide emissions  
47%  
30%  
50  
40  
30  
20  
10  
Clean Replacement  
Electricity Replacement  
BECCS  
CCS  
6%  
6%  
0
-10  
GEI plan  
2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100  
Year  
Figure 3-26 GEI Emission Reduction Path  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
GEI will lower the cost of mitigation. GEI will promote energy transition in the most  
economical way, which can reduce energy investment and slash the cost of emission  
reduction. It is estimated that from 2016 to 2050, the cumulative investment in the energy  
system will reach up to USD 78 trillion to USD 92 trillion, accounting for no more than 2%  
of GDP. Compared with other emission reduction schemes, the investment is low and so is  
the cost, as shown in Figure 3-27.  
4.0%  
3.5%  
3.0%  
2.5%  
2.0%  
1.5%  
1.0%  
0.5%  
0.0%  
IMAGE  
GEI  
MESSAGEix-  
GLOBIOM  
WITCH-  
GLOBIOM  
POLES  
AIM/CGE  
REMIND-  
MAgPIE  
1.5ĎTotal energy investment per GDP  
2Ď Total energy investment per GDP  
1.5Ď Clean energy investment per GDP  
2Ď Clean energy investment per GDP  
Figure 3-27 GEI Investment Vs. Other Scheme Investment  
GEI will improve the efficiency of emission reduction. Building GEI will deliver USD 9  
in social benefits for every USD 1 invested in energy systems. By 2050, a cumulative USD  
20 trillion will be reduced in climate losses. By the end of the century, potential climate  
losses equivalent to 3% of global gross domestic product could be avoided every year, as  
shown in Figure 3-28.  
Unit:  
9X  
9X  
trillion USD  
720  
800  
92  
78  
GEI 2℃ scenario energy  
GEI 2℃ scenario  
GEI 1.5℃ scenario energy  
GEI 1.5℃ scenario social  
system investment  
social benefits  
system investment  
benefits  
Health benefits from outdoor air pollution mitigation  
Economic benefits  
Health benefits from indoor air pollution mitigation  
Social benefits  
Reduce climate damage  
Reduce fossil fuel subsidy  
Figure 3-28 GEI Enhances Social Welfare  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
3.14 Protecting Marine Ecology  
Ocean is a treasure house of resources on which man depends for survival. Since the  
Industrial Revolution, marine pollution and climate change have significantly changed  
seawater temperature, oxygen content and pH, seriously damaging Marine ecology. At  
present, the area of water unsuitable for marine life has quadrupled since the 1950s, as  
the same size as the European Union. About 20 billion tons of oil, plastics, heavy metals  
and other pollutants enter oceans around the world every year, killing a large amount of  
marine life each year [17]. When swallowed by fish and other sea creatures, these harmful  
substances will quickly enter the global food chain and affect human survival and health.  
Fossil fuels is an important reason behind the deterioration of marine ecological  
environment. 34% of the world’s oil resources come from the sea, and more than 50%  
of the oil is transported by sea. Every year, about 10 million tons of oil pollutants are  
produced by offshore oil well pipeline leakage, oil tanker accidents and ship discharge.  
In particular, some sudden accidents cause great damage. For example, the oil and gas  
spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 discharged 840,000 tons of crude oil, polluted 2500  
square kilometers of sea surface and led to the death of a large number of marine life.  
The burning of coal, oil and other heavy metals releases trace amounts of heavy metals  
such as mercury and cadmium into the atmosphere and into the oceans with precipitation,  
which accounts for about 4000 tons of mercury entering the oceans each year. Coastal  
thermal power plants lead to marine thermal pollution. A one-gigawatt thermal power plant  
has a cooling water discharge of about 30-50 m3/s, which will reduce the oxygen content  
of seawater and destroy the ecology of the nearby sea areas. The ocean’s absorption of  
CO2 leads to acidification of seawater, 85% of which comes from fossil fuels. The global  
pH value of seawater has fallen by 0.1 unit since the Industrial Revolution, and its acidity  
has increased by 26%. At the current rate, the pH value of the surface sea water will  
continue to fall by 0.3 unit by the end of the century.  
The SDG 14 of the 2030 Agenda calls for conserving and sustainably using the oceans,  
seas and marine resources for sustainable development. The major tasks are to deepen  
global cooperation, prevent and control all kinds of marine pollution, jointly meet the  
challenges of ocean acidification, and strengthen the protection of Marine ecosystems.  
GEI will reduce the production and consumption of fossil fuels and carbon emissions,  
significantly reduce marine pollution and acidification, facilitate international marine  
cooperation, achieve rational use of resources and protect the Marine ecological environment.  
GEI will control marine pollution. After the formation of a clean energy-dominated  
pattern, offshore oil development and transportation will be greatly reduced, and offshore  
oil pollution will be fundamentally addressed. Likewise, heavy metals and thermal pollution  
from burning fossil fuels will be slashed. Replacing a one-gigawatt thermal power plant  
with clean energy can reduce cooling water discharge by 400 to 700 million m3/yr, which  
is conducive to protecting and restoring the offshore ecology.  
GEI will cushion ocean acidification. GEI will accelerate the decarbonization of energy  
systems, significantly cutting the amount of CO2 in the air, and fundamentally addressed  
the problem of ocean acidification. For example, the carbon emissions of auxiliary engines  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
from ships in port of call account for 70% of the total emissions from ports. Through large-  
scale development of port electricity, 98% of the carbon emissions from ships in port of  
call can be reduced.  
GEI will strengthen maritime cooperation. GEI will promote the construction of green  
ports and smart ports through the development of port electricity, electric ships and  
other technical equipment; it will promote cooperation in the development of marine  
resources and production capacity through projects such as offshore wind power, tidal  
power generation and cross-sea interconnection channels; it will work to build consensus  
on marine protection, establish and optimize cooperation mechanisms, and improve the  
multilevel marine cooperation system at regional and sub-regional levels.  
3.15 Protecting Terrestrial Ecosystems  
The land is the common home shared by human beings. Today, the problems of forest  
degradation and land desertification are very serious. Since 1990, the world’s forests have  
degraded 13 million hectares every year, with a cumulative degraded area of 129 million  
hectares[18], equivalent to the entire land area of South Africa. The global desert area  
reaches up to 36 million square kilometers, accounting for about 25% of the total land  
area. Every year 12 million hectares of land are swallowed by deserts, and the proportion  
of land desert in Australia, Africa and Asia has reached 75%, 55% and 34%A.  
Fossil fuels represents a key cause of damage to terrestrial ecosystems. Fossil fuels leads  
to climate change, changing precipitation, temperature and geological environment, and  
harming the forest system. Burning fossil fuels produces more than 90% of global SO2  
and nitrogen oxides, which result in acid rain, damage leaves, increase soil acidity, and  
lead to widespread forest death. In North America and Europe, about 25% of forests  
are affected by acid rain. The activities of exploiting coal and shale gas will change the  
geological structure and groundwater environment in the mining area, causing ground  
collapse and vegetation destruction, and aggravating soil and water loss. In arid regions,  
climate change and human activity interact to further increase surface air temperature  
and water evaporation, thus accelerating desertification.  
The SDG 15 of the 2030 Agenda calls for protecting, restoring and promoting sustainable  
use of terrestrial ecosystems. The main tasks are to sustainably manage existing forest  
resources, increase afforestation and desertification prevention and control campaigns,  
and restore terrestrial ecosystems such as forests, wetlands and foothills. GEI will  
significantly reduce the exploitation of fossil fuels, curb emissions of greenhouse gases  
and pollutants, alleviate and control forest degradation and desertification, and protect the  
terrestrial ecological environment.  
GEI will reduce land damage. The exploitation of fossil fuels will be greatly reduced and  
groundwater and surface land in mining areas effectively protected. In some areas with  
soft rock strata, for every 10,000 tons of coal mined less, about 3000m2 of land could be  
Source: http://www.21csp.com.cn/zhanti/JNH BAF /article/article_13684.html.  
A
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
prevented from collapsing[19]. The substantial reduction in coal consumption will greatly  
reduce the encroachment of solid wastes such as coal gangue on land resources and the  
secondary-pollution to soil.  
GEI will protect forests and biodiversity. Building GEI will enable us to achieve global  
carbon reduction targets, and reduce emissions of SO2 by 71% and nitrogen oxide by  
65% by 2050, greatly mitigating the effects brought by climate change and acid rain.  
Forests are home to more than 80% of the animals and plants on land. Protecting forest  
ecosystems will also effectively protect biodiversity and promote harmonious coexistence  
between human being and nature.  
GEI will help combat desertification. Harnessing the advantages of “sufficient light,  
low land price and large area” in desert areas to develop solar power and wind power  
on a large scale can turn the disadvantages of ecological environment into advantages  
of resources. Clean energy power generation equipment can slow surface wind speeds,  
reduce precipitation shocks and soil moisture evaporation, and prevent deserts from  
expanding too quickly. In areas which have become moderately desertified, simultaneous  
development of clean energy and desertification control can effectively restore and  
improve land productivity. It is estimated that by building GEI, the area of PV power  
stations in desertification areas around the world will reach up to 650,000 square  
kilometers by 2050, and the desertification area will be directly controlled by nearly  
1 million square kilometers [18]. China’s Inner Mongolia has succeeded in promoting  
“Desertification Control via PV Technology”, see Column 3-12.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
Column 3-12 China’s Inner Mongolia Promotes “Desertification  
Control via PV Technology”  
The Kubuqi Desert in Dalad Banner, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China, is  
the seventh largest desert in China, with a total area of about 1.45 million hectares,  
and mobile dunes account for about 61%. The Kubuqi Desert is rich in solar power,  
with more than 3180 hours of sunshine per year, thus enjoying advantages to  
develop the PV industry. The local government invested 3.75 billion yuan to build a  
500-MW PV power station on the edge of the desert. The station was connected to  
the grid for power generation in December 2017. By the end of 2019, the cumulative  
generating capacity reaches 810 GWh, with an output value of 280 million yuan,  
as shown in Figure 3-29. In June 2019, the National Energy Administration of  
China decided to build another 500 MW PV power station in the region. After the  
completion of the second-phase project, it will be integrated with the first phase,  
constituting the largest desert centralized PV power generation base in China and  
the largest PV desertification control project in the world.  
Figure 3-29 PV desertification control project in Dalad Banner, Inner Mongolia  
104  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
3.16 World Peace and Harmony  
Peace and development are the underlying trends of today’s world. However, such  
security threats as terrorism, hegemonism, separatism and extremism have never been  
eliminated, partial wars, geopolitical conflicts and terrorist attacks keep happening, and  
world peace and stability are thus facing severe challenges. Conflicts and violence have  
displaced more than 41 million people and forced 28.5 million school-age children out of  
school in recent years, according to the United Nations.  
Competition for oil and gas resources is an important cause of conflicts and wars. Global  
fossil fuels such as oil and gas are concentrated in a few countries. Of these, Saudi  
Arabia, Venezuela, Canada, Iran and Iraq have 62% of the world’s oil reserves, while  
Russia, Iran, Qatar and Turkmenistan have 58% of the world’s natural gas reserves[20]. The  
scarcity of oil and gas makes it a political matter. As Henry Kissinger, a former American  
Secretary of State, once said: “If you control oil, you control all countries.” Rich in oil  
and gas resources, the Middle East has witnessed the outbreak of the Iran-Iraq War, the  
Kuwait War and the Gulf War, which hindered world peace and stability.  
The SDG 16 of the 2030 Agenda calls for promoting peaceful and inclusive societies for  
sustainable development. The main tasks are to reduce all forms of violence and related death  
rates everywhere, and to broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in  
the institutions of global governance. By building an energy community through consultation  
and collaboration, GEI will help shift mankind from fossil fuels competition to clean energy  
sharing and cooperation, and make the world more inclusive, peaceful and harmonious.  
GEI will promote clean development and resolve energy disputes. Energy security is  
an overarching and strategic issue concerning the economic and social development of  
countries. GEI will enable an inexhaustible supply of clean energy to become the dominant  
energy source and thus fundamentally resolve oil and gas disputes. Energy will no longer  
be a constraint on development or a cause for geopolitical conflicts, and energy security of  
countries will be fully guaranteed, hence a more stable international environment.  
GEI will promote transnational interconnection and enhance political mutual  
trust. GEI will promote the development of transnational and trans-continental power  
interconnection and global power market, which will fully unleash the potential of  
international cooperation and enable exporting, transit and receiving countries all to obtain  
reasonable benefits and returns. A deeply integrated energy system and enduring and  
stable common interests will provide an important supporting point for enhancing mutual  
understanding and trust among countries and deepening solid international relations.  
GEI will build an energy community and promote reform of the global governance  
system. Energy governance is an important aspect of the global governance system. GEI  
will encourage countries to jointly develop and utilize global clean energy, build an energy  
community of mutual consultation and shared benefits, and create a more equitable order  
of energy governance so that developing countries will have a greater say in the global  
governance system. People of all countries will be more closely connected, and the  
world will move faster towards peace and inclusiveness, and become a clean, beautiful,  
peaceful and harmonious “global village”.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
3.17 Global Cooperation  
A strong, inclusive and comprehensive global partnership is the fundamental guarantee  
for the implementation of the 2030 Agenda. In recent years, unilateralism and trade  
protectionism have been on the rise, anti-globalization trends have been sprawling,  
and multilateralism and the free trade system have been dampened. Due to the impact  
of international trade frictions, global trade growth slowed down. In 2018, global trade  
volume increased by 3% compared with the same period last year, and dropped further to  
2.6%Ain 2019. At the same time, cooperation in energy, climate, science and technology  
has also been dampened.  
To implement the 2030 Agenda, it is necessary to improve mechanisms and platforms  
for international cooperation and, on the basis of the United Nations intergovernmental  
cooperation mechanism, further encourage the broad participation of enterprises,  
financial institutions, universities and private institutions. The SDG 17 of the 2030 Agenda  
calls for revitalizing global partnership for sustainable development. The main tasks  
are to promote inclusive partnerships involving governments, businesses, institutions,  
universities and civil society worldwide, so as to pool global synergy for the realization of  
the Sustainable Development Goals. GEI is a systematic project involving many countries,  
energy, politics, economy, environment and other fields. It will build an open, inclusive and  
win-win platform for international cooperation for governments, enterprises and institutions  
through power infrastructure interconnection, joint construction and shared benefits, to  
consolidate and develop global partnerships.  
GEI will promote policy synergy among countries. GEI will encourage governments  
to align and coordinate their policies, strategies and plans on clean energy development  
and transnational power interconnection, conduct consultation and cooperation on  
electricity trade, energy security, environmental protection, technical standards and  
market regulation, and establish an effective international legal framework and regional  
and global coordination mechanisms, so as to push for strong partnerships among  
countries.  
Source: The Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China (http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/  
index.shtml).  
A
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
Column 3-13 African Energy Interconnection Sustainable  
Development Alliance  
On September 4, 2018, GEIDCO and the Government of Guinea jointly unveiled the  
initiative to establish the African Energy Interconnection Sustainable Development  
Alliance during the Beijing Summit of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation. The  
Alliance is committed to building African Energy Interconnection to promote the  
development of clean, industrialized, electrified and integrated Africa, contribute  
to the realization of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
and the African Union’s Agenda 2063, and provide important platforms for the  
government, enterprises and financial institutions to connect policies, plan  
research, raise funds and implement projects. So far, more than 20 countries and  
more than 80 internationally renowned enterprises and institutions have expressed  
their willingness to join the Alliance.  
GEI will strengthen global economic and trade cooperation. The total investment  
of GEI is estimated to be USD 30 trillion to USD 40 trillion. With strong profitability and  
extensive industrial chain, the project will create a broad investment space globally and  
attract enterprises and institutions from different countries to participate in its investment  
and construction. At the same time, relying on GEI, an international power market covering  
every corner of the world and relevant new rules, orders and platforms will be established  
step by step to guarantee the global allocation and trading of clean energy and enhance  
economic and trade exchanges among different countries.  
GEI will promote global technological cooperation. Building GEI will guide enterprises,  
universities, research institutions to conduct close cooperation in areas such as basic  
science, technological innovation, standard setting, equipment manufacturing, project  
construction and industry development, thus establishing an integrated technological  
cooperation model that is oriented by actual needs, driven by value creation, supported  
by engineering projects and targeted at achievement incubation, so as to promote global  
industry-university-research cooperation to help them draw on each other’s strengths and  
pursue win-win cooperation. See Column 3-14.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
Column 3-14 GEI’s University, Think Tank, Finance and  
Equipment Alliances  
To further pool wisdom and expertise  
from all fields and form synergy  
for development, GEIDCO has  
established four GEI alliances of  
universities, think tanks, finance and  
equipment.  
GEI University  
Alliance  
GEI Think Tank  
Alliance  
GEI University Alliance: The Alli-  
ance was founded on September 26,  
2018, and the first batch of members  
includes 32 universities around the  
world. The Alliance will build four  
platforms, namely, concept promotion,  
research innovation, academic exch-  
GEI Financial  
Alliance  
GEI Equipment  
Alliance  
Figure 3-30 GEI Professional Alliances  
ange and talent cultivation, to give full play to the advantages of basic research  
in universities, achieve breakthroughs in scientific research, results sharing,  
and discipline construction, and attract more college teachers and students to  
participate in the research and development of GEI to jointly support the GEI  
development.  
GEI Think Tank Alliance: The Alliance was founded on December 10, 2018,  
and the first batch includes 28 well-known think tanks from 13 countries on  
five continents. The Alliance aims to build a joint research platform, give play  
to the advantages and enthusiasm of think tanks in policy, theory, technology  
and other consulting and advice, and provide intellectual support for the  
development of GEI.  
GEI Financial Alliance: Founded on September 26, 2019, the Alliance has the  
first batch of members include 20 important investment, fund, bank, consulting  
and insurance institutions boasting industrial influence. The Alliance aims to  
bring together global financial institutions, promote financial innovation, share  
practical experience, tap into business opportunities, and accelerate investment  
in GEI.  
GEI Equipment Alliance: Founded on September 26, 2019, the Alliance has  
the first group of members include 70 important equipment manufacturing  
enterprises with industrial influence. The Alliance aims to pool global equipment  
manufacturing forces, accelerate research on key technologies and equipment  
in areas such as UHV, smart grid and clean energy, and push forward the  
development of GEI.  
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GEI Alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development  
References  
[1] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the United Nations  
Food Program, etc. The 2019 Global Report on Food Crises [R]. 2019.  
[2] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, etc. The State of Food  
Security and Nutrition in the World 2018 [R]. 2018.  
[3] The World Health Organization and the World Bank. Access to Modern Energy  
Services for Health Facilities in Resource-Constrained Settings [R]. 2015.  
[4] The United Nations. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2019 [R]. 2019.  
[5] The International Renewable Energy Agency. Women in Renewable Energy: The  
Modern Energy Environment [R]. 2019.  
[6] IRENA. 10 Years: Progress to Action [R]. 2020.  
[7] The World Water Assessment Program. The World Water Development Report  
2016[R]. 2016.  
[8] Song Shijie. Analysis and Countermeasures of Ecological Environmental Damage  
Caused by Coal Mining in Coal Mining Areas [J]. Coal Processing and Comprehensive  
Utilization, 2007, Issue 3: pp. 44-48.  
[9] GEIDCO. Hydropower Development and Outbound Transmission of Congo River[M].  
Beijing: China Electric Power Press, 2019.  
[10] The International Labor Organization. The World Employment and Social Outlook:  
Trends 2018[R]. 2018.  
[11] Applied Market Research. Global Opportunity Analysis and Industry Forecast 2020-  
2027[R]. 2020.  
[12] The International Energy Agency. Study on Energy Consumption of Data Centers and  
Data Transmission Networks [R]. 2019.  
[13] The International Energy Agency. World Energy Statistics 2019[R]. 2019.  
[14] The New World Wealth. Global Wealth Migration Review 2019 [R]. 2019.  
[15] Guo Kesha. Analysis of the Economics of Industrialization and Urbanization [A].  
Chinese Sociology, 2002, Issue 2: pp. 44-55.  
[16] World Wild Fund (WWF). Living Planet Report 2012 [R]. 2012.  
[17] The International Pollutants Elimination Network. Ocean Pollutants Guide–Toxic  
Threats to Human Health and Marine Life [R]. 2018.  
109  
Towards Sustainable Development  
[18] GEIDCO. GEI Action Plan for Promoting Global Environmental Protection [R]. 2019.  
[19] Luo Kaisha, Shu Longcang, Tan Bingqing, Wu Wei. Research on Water Resource  
Utilization in Huainan Mining Area [A]. Wuhan University. Conference on  
Environmental Pollution and Public Health [C]. Wuhan University: Scientific Research  
Publishing, 2010:5.  
[20] British Petroleum. Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 [R]. 2019.  
110  
GEI Action on the  
2030 Agenda  
4
Towards Sustainable Development  
4.1 GEI Research and Practice  
Practical actions are key to building GEI and achieving the Sustainable Development  
Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda. Since its inception in March 2016, GEIDCO has  
continuously and actively worked to advance GEI’s innovative development—promoting  
its concept, innovative research, project implementation and platform building to turn  
concept into reality.  
Advancing the GEI concept. GEIDCO has held over 30 large-scale international  
conferences including the Global Energy Interconnection Conference and High-level  
Forum on Global Energy Interconnection and China-Africa Energy and Power Conference,  
has organized more than 400 lectures at major international conferences such as the  
Boao Forum For Asia, and Eastern Economic Forum and at institutions including the UN  
Headquarters, Royal Academy of Engineering, Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering  
Sciences, Harvard University and University of Cambridge. It has also held talks with  
UN officials including UN Secretary General António Guterres, over 20 governmental  
leaders and heads of state, and more than 200 ministerial officials. All efforts aim for the  
comprehensive promotion of the GEI concept and its development achievements, and  
have received active support and response from all parties. GEI has been incorporated  
into such frameworks for action as the 2030 Agenda, the Paris Agreement, and the Global  
Energy Interconnection Action Plan for Promoting Global Environmental Protection and  
Global Energy Interconnection Action Plan for Addressing Electricity Access, Poverty and  
Health Issues and the Belt and Road Initiative. GEI has also been included in outcome  
reports for the 9th Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM9) and the 54th ECOWAS Summit, and  
selected as a policy suggestion for the UN High-level Political Forum three years in a row,  
generating great influence and momentum.  
Table 4-1 Comments on GEI from the International Community  
Key Personal  
Comments and Remarks  
I. UN Officials  
“It is this global interconnectivity that allows for inclusivity for  
energy to reach everybody in need. And so, GEI is in the centre  
of the two central concepts (sustainability and inclusivity) of our  
commitment to Agenda 2030 and with our objectives in relation  
to climate change,” said Mr. Antonio Guterres. He urged all  
governments around the world to step up efforts for energy  
transition  
António Guterres  
UN Secretary General  
Ban Ki-moon  
Former UN Secretary General  
The United Nations will play a crucial role in supporting GEI  
development  
“Building GEI is extremely forward-looking and pragmatic.  
It reflects China’s great contribution to the international  
community. GEI is crucial to addressing climate change and  
implementing the Paris Agreement.” The UNFCCC secretariat  
supports the GEI initiative and will fully back up the work of  
GEIDCO  
Patricia Espinosa  
Executive Secretary of the United  
Nations Framework Convention on  
Climate Change  
112  
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GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Continued  
Key Personal  
Comments and Remarks  
Vera Songwe  
UN Under Secretary General and  
“GEI and AEI play a pivotal role in advancing the SDGs of 2030  
Executive Secretary of the Economic Agenda and the goals of AU Agenda 2063”  
Commission for Africa  
“GEI can provide a reliable and affordable clean energy supply  
Fekitamoeloa Katoa ‘Utoikamanu  
UN Under-Secretary General and  
High Representative of UN-OHRLLS  
across the world, which is essential for achieving the SDGs of  
2030 Agenda and implementing the Paris Agreement, and will  
benefit many underdeveloped countries and regions”  
“China has set an advanced example in the world by its  
technological innovation in UHV technology. The UHV-  
empowered GEI will change the future of the world”  
Inger Anderson  
Executive Director of the UNEP  
“I hope to strengthen cooperation with GEIDCO in the areas of  
renewable energy, smart cities and climate change, to promote  
the sustainable development of developing countries and Belt  
and Road countries”  
Maimunah Mohd Sharif  
UN-Habitat  
Executive Director  
Petteri Taalas  
WMO  
Secretary General  
“More renewable energy will be needed to achieve the goals in  
the Paris Agreement. I look forward to increased cooperation  
with all parties to realize the bright future of GEI”  
II. Leaders of Concerned Countries  
“Egypt will support China’s GEI initiative, as it aligns with the  
development strategy of Egypt. The interconnection planning  
and research achievements of GEIDCO are of great importance  
for Egypt’s development. I would like to co-launch with GEIDCO  
to establish the Arab States Alliance for Energy Interconnection  
and Sustainable Development to promote the development of  
energy interconnection in Egypt, Africa and Arab countries”  
Abdel Fattah Al-Sisi  
President of the Arab Republic of  
Egypt  
“The GEI initiative is a reflection of China’s responsibility.  
GEIDCO has made impressive achievements in China and the  
world. Guinea is ready to work with GEIDCO and other parties  
Alpha Condé  
President of the Republic of Guinea  
to promote the building of African Energy Interconnection  
(AEI), so as to promote energy transition and sustainable  
development in Africa”  
“I expect GEIDCO to use its strengths in helping Niger to  
improve energy efficiency and reduce the cost of energy use.  
Niger is ready to join the AEISDA and support the development  
of hydroelectricity in Grand Inga”  
Mahamadou Issoufou  
President of the Republic of the  
Niger  
“The building of AEI and the introduction of clean and  
affordable hydropower in Congo River will help solve the  
problems of power shortage and high electricity prices in  
Burkina Faso and promote the development of industry and  
agriculture. Burkina Faso is ready to join the AEISDA”  
Roch Marc Christian Kaboré  
President of Burkina Faso  
113  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Continued  
Key Personal  
Comments and Remarks  
“Ghana is ready to deepen cooperation with GEIDCO, as  
China’s GEI initiative provides advanced, scientific and  
systematic solutions for the global energy transition and  
sustainable development”  
Nana Akufo-Addo  
President of the Republic of Ghana  
“I commend the initiative of AEISDA and Republic of the  
Congo will be ready to work with all parties to promote clean,  
industrialized, electrified and integrated development in Africa”  
Denis Sassou Nguesso  
President of Republic of the Congo  
Hailemariam Desalegn  
Prime Minister of the Federal  
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia  
“Accelerating the development of clean energy and the  
construction of power grid infrastructure is a key to achieving  
goals for the economic and social development of Africa”  
“I support China’s GEI initiative. China has made admirable  
achievements in UHV transmission and clean energy  
development. I hope to combine Tunisia’s resource advantages  
with China’s advanced technology and experience to promote  
Tunisia’s energy development. I hope that Tunisia can play a  
central role in the Europe-Africa interconnection by its regional  
advantages”  
Mohamed Ennaceur  
Speaker of the Assembly of the  
Representatives of the People of  
Tunisia  
“I hope to carry out comprehensive cooperation with GEIDCO,  
leveraging its advantages in expertise and platform to jointly  
promote the development of clean energy in Mongolia and  
Northeast Asia energy interconnection”  
Khaltmaagiin Battulga  
President of Mongolia  
“The Paris Agreement must be observed. Businesses have to  
move towards low carbon and emission reduction. I call for  
the joint efforts of political decision makers and entrepreneurs.  
Norway is a strong supporter of global sustainable development  
and welcome more cooperation with GEIDCO”  
Erna Solberg  
Prime Minister of the Kingdom of  
Norway  
Stefan Löfven  
Prime Minister of the Kingdom of  
Sweden  
“Sweden is committed to building a fossil fuels-free future and  
becoming an electrified country led by clean energy, and wants  
to strengthen its cooperation with China”  
Boungnang Vorachith  
“I agree with and support the Belt and Road Initiative  
and China’s GEI initiative. Moreover, I’m willing to deepen  
cooperation with China in the energy sector to make Laos a  
‘battery’ in the ASEAN region.”  
General Secretary of the Lao  
People’s Revolutionary Party and  
President of Laos  
“China’s GEI initiative is also an ideal for Chile, which is in the  
process of interconnecting its national electricity system and will  
continue to promote power grid interconnection with neighboring  
countries. I hope to strengthen cooperation with GEIDCO”  
Eduardo Frei Montalva  
Former President of the Republic of  
Chile  
III. Heads of International and Regional Organizations  
“Building GEI is an important plan for addressing climate  
change, accelerating low-carbon development and securing  
energy supply. I look forward to deepening cooperation with  
GEIDCO”  
Fatih Birol  
Executive Director of the  
International Energy Agency  
114  
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GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Continued  
Key Personal  
Ahmed Aboul Gheit  
Secretary General of the League of  
Arab States  
Comments and Remarks  
“I fully agree with China’s GEI initiative and the League of Arab  
States will play its role to promote it in Arab countries”  
Quartey Thomas Kwesi  
Deputy Chairperson of the African  
Union Commission  
“China’s GEI initiative provides Africa with sufficient energy  
and advanced technologies for its peaceful development. All  
African countries are encouraged to embrace it”  
“GEI has an encouraging development vision, which points  
the way for ASEAN countries to move away from fossil fuel  
dependency. I will introduce this concept to member countries”  
Lim Hong Hin  
Deputy Secretary General of ASEAN  
IV. Heads of International Industry Associations  
Rob Stephen  
President of CIGRE  
“GEI is technically feasible and promising, and CIGRE is willing  
to play a role and disseminate this concept”  
Richard Taylor  
Former CEO of International  
Hydropower Association  
“The success in UHV, pumped storage, and hydro-wind-PV  
power generation fully prove GEI is feasible and practical”  
“China’s GEI initiative, proposed by Chinese President Xi  
Jinping, demonstrates the country’s global leadership. The  
achievements of GEIDCO reflect China’s speed and vitality.  
I will encourage other countries to support GEI at the policy  
level”  
Nicholas Dunlop  
Secretary General of the Climate  
Parliament  
Thomas R. Kuhn  
President of Edison Electric Institute  
“GEIDCO has proved to the world that GEI is entirely feasible  
for achieving clean and sustainable development”  
“International cooperation is essential for the implementation  
of clean energy development and the goals of the Paris  
Agreement. GEI is a clear and robust plan for achieving future  
development goals. I look forward to deepening cooperation  
with GEIDCO”  
Kristian Ruby  
Secretary General of Eurelectric  
“Building GEI is the most ambitious and innovative plan ever  
proposed in the power sector. It will bring unprecedented  
development opportunities to Africa. I look forward to further  
cooperation with GEIDCO”  
Abel Didier Tella  
Secretary General of Association of  
Power Utilities of Africa  
115  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Column 4-1 Major International Conferences of GEI  
The UN High-level Symposium on Global Energy Interconnection. On November  
1, co-organized by GEIDCO and the UN DESA, the High-level Symposium  
on Global Energy Interconnection was held at UN Headquarters in New York.  
GEIDCO released its GEI Action Plan to Promote the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable  
Development, which dovetails perfectly with the 17 goals of the 2030 Agenda for  
Sustainable Development. Ten Actions and Five Cooperation Mechanisms were  
proposed as solutions and practical paths towards sustainable global development  
and to build a community with a shared future for mankind. The symposium was  
a complete success. It marked the incorporation of China’s GEI initiative into the  
framework of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and it’s becoming a  
guide for action for countries around the world.  
Figure 4-1 High-level Symposium on Global Energy Interconnection, New York,  
November 2017  
Global Energy Interconnection Conference. As GEIDCO’s flagship conference,  
the meeting has been held annually since 2016. It has become an international  
event for discussing and promoting GEI development. The 2018 Global Energy  
Interconnection Conference received congratulations from international leaders  
including UN Secretary General António Guterres and drew more than 1100  
delegates from more than 30 countries and regions, including 208 international  
guests. Twelve achievements were released at the conference, including the Global  
Energy Interconnection Backbone Grid Research, which is of great significance to  
the advancement of the global energy transition and sustainable development. As  
for the 2019 Global Energy Interconnection and China-Africa Energy and Power  
Conference, GEIDCO welcomed foreign guests to Shanghai and Yichang to inspect  
the UHV power grid, smart grid, and the Three Gorges Project. This was followed  
up with a plenary meeting in Beijing, bringing together more than 1000 guests from  
116  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
79 countries. Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, Ghanaian President Nana  
Akufo-Addo, Burkina Faso President Roch Marc Christian Kaboré, and Mongolian  
President Khaltmaagiin Battulga sent special envoys to read congratulatory  
messages and deliver keynote speeches at the conference. Guinean President  
Alpha Condé sent a congratulatory video to be shown at the conference. The United  
Nations, the African Union, the League of Arab States, and other organizations  
also sent video messages or congratulatory letters. Guests spoke highly of the  
conference and agreed that the meeting had provided a package solution and a  
cooperation platform for the development of African Energy Interconnection and the  
realization of Africa’s sustainable development, and moreover was of great significance  
to the deepening of China-Africa energy and power cooperation, the Belt and Road  
Initiative, and to building a community with a shared future for mankind.  
Figure 4-2 Global Energy Interconnection Conference, Beijing, March 28, 2018  
High-Level Forum on Global Energy Interconnection. In order to commemorate  
China’s GEI initiative, proposed by President Xi Jinping at the United Nations  
Development Summit in September 2015, GEIDCO has held a High-Level Forum on  
Global Energy Interconnection every September since 2016, inviting government  
departments, enterprises, institutions and universities to discuss the development  
of GEI and seek the path of sustainable development of mankind. These High-  
Level Forums have led all parties involved to further recognize the importance  
of GEI as a solution for the global energy transition, climate change mitigation,  
and humanity’s sustainable development. These nations will jointly promote the  
incorporation of GEI into the international governance system, relevant regional  
and national development plans, and international collaborations, creating a new  
pattern of green, low-carbon energy development featuring connectivity, and joint  
construction, and mutual reward.  
117  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Figure 4-3 Forum on African Energy Interconnection Development, Beijing,  
September 4, 2018  
GEI conferences to align with major UN initiatives. During the 23rd and 24th  
United Nations Climate Change Conferences, the Science Policy Forum of the  
fourth session of the United Nations Environment Assembly, the Global Conference  
on Scaling-up Energy Access and Finance in Least Developed Countries, the  
International Water Conference, and other major United Nations conferences, GEI  
Forums and thematic activities were held to discuss the significance of building  
GEI and its development concepts. Moreover, a number of plans were issued—GEI  
Action Plan for Promoting the Implementation of the Paris Agreement, GEI Action Plan  
for Promoting Global Environmental Governance, and GEI Action Plan for Addressing  
Electricity Access, Poverty and Health Issues—providing systemic solutions and action  
guides for resolving major challenges to sustainable development.  
Figure 4-4 The Parallel Session on Clean Energy Technology of the Fourth Session of the  
UN Environment Assembly, Nairobi, March 2019  
118  
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GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Conducting innovative research. Comprehensive conceptual, logistical, and  
technological breakthroughs have been achieved in GEI through nearly a hundred  
organized and completed research projects and publishing of 30 globally influential  
results. In terms of theory, the GEI system—with smart grid, UHV grid, and clean energy  
as its basic components, clean alternatives and electricity replacement as its strategic  
path, and the integration of the energy network, transportation network and information  
network, as its development direction—has been put forth as a crucial theoretical support  
for world energy reform and humanity’s sustainable development. In terms of planning,  
based on surveys of resource endowments, energy demand, and economic and social  
conditions in more than 100 countries, GEIDCO has published a series of reports on GEI  
research and prospects at global and continental levels, proposed the idea of a “nine  
horizontal and nine vertical” GEI backbone grid for intercontinental energy connection,  
and provided a systemic roadmap for GEI development planning and construction. In  
terms of technology, GEIDCO has formulated and released the GEI Standard Research  
and GEI Innovation Action Outline for Technical Equipment, promoting the R&D and  
application of GEI technologies—such as UHV VSC DC, UHV submarine cables, high-  
capacity energy storage and high-efficiency clean power generation—and clarifying the  
direction of GEI’s technological innovation.  
Table 4-2 Research Achievements on GEI Released by GEIDCO  
S/N  
1
Research Achievements  
S/N  
8
Research Achievements  
Research Report on Global Energy  
Interconnection for Addressing Climate  
Change  
Research and Outlook on Global Energy  
Interconnection  
Research and Outlook on Asian Energy  
Interconnection  
Research Report on Global Electricity-  
Carbon Market  
2
3
4
5
9
New Model of “Electricity, Mining, Metallurgy,  
Manufacturing and Trade” Co-Development  
For Africa  
Research and Outlook on African Energy  
Interconnection  
10  
11  
12  
Research and Outlook on European  
Energy Interconnection  
Study on Hydropower Development and  
Delivery in Congo River  
Global Energy Interconnection Action Plan  
for Addressing Electricity Access, Poverty  
and Health Issues  
Research and Outlook on North American  
Energy Interconnection  
Developing Africa Energy Interconnection  
to Promote Hydropower Resource  
Development and Achieve the Co-  
Development of Electricity, Mining,  
Metallurgy, Manufacturing and Trade  
Research and Outlook on Central and  
South American Energy Interconnection  
6
7
13  
14  
Research and Outlook on Oceanian  
Energy Interconnection  
Research Report on the Belt and Road  
Energy Interconnection  
119  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Continued  
Research Achievements  
S/N  
15  
Research Achievements  
S/N  
23  
Development Report on Global Energy  
Interconnection for Promoting the Belt and  
Road  
Global Energy Interconnection Standard  
System Research 2018  
Global Energy Interconnection Action  
Plan for Promoting Global Environmental  
Protection  
Global Energy Interconnection Action  
Plan for Promoting the 2030 Agenda for  
Sustainable Development  
16  
17  
24  
25  
Global Energy Interconnection Action  
Plan for Promoting the Implementation of  
the Paris Agreement  
White Paper on Global Energy  
Interconnection  
Development Strategy  
Northeast Asia Energy Interconnection  
Planning Research Report  
Global Energy Interconnection Development  
and Outlook 2017  
18  
19  
20  
21  
26  
27  
28  
29  
Southeast Asia Energy Interconnection  
Planning Research Report  
Technology and Prospects for  
Transcontinental Electricity Interconnection  
Global Energy Interconnection Backbone  
Grid Research  
Development Report on Global Energy  
Interconnection 2016  
Global Energy Interconnection  
Development Index 2018  
Global Energy Analysis and Outlook  
Global Energy Interconnection Innovation  
Action Outline for Technical Equipment  
2018-2025  
Arctic Wind Power Resource Development  
Report  
22  
30  
Positive progress has been made in project implementation. GEIDCO has received  
support from concerned countries by vigorously promoting such projects as China-South  
Korea grid interconnection, China-Myanmar-Bangladesh grid interconnection, Ethiopia-  
Gulf countries grid interconnection, and Congo River hydropower delivery. The pre-  
feasibility study for the first project has been completed and a joint intergovernmental  
working group for the second project established; for the third project, a cooperation  
agreement has come to conclusion. AEI development. A new co-development model  
of “electricity, mining, metallurgy, manufacturing and trade” has been put forward to  
create an industry chain coordinating development throughout these five fields and  
comprehensively improving the quality, scale, and efficiency of Africa’s economic  
development. This model has received positive support from the African Union (AU),  
APUA and five African Power Pools, as well as the governments, enterprises and  
institutions of many countries. It has also been included in the Chinese government and  
AU’s joint planning for collaborations promoting the Belt and Road Initiative. GEIDCO has  
held the First China-Africa Energy and Power Conference (in cooperation with UNECA,  
APUA and other institutions), set up the African Energy Interconnection Sustainable  
Development Alliance with the Guinean government, and built a cooperation platform  
for governments, enterprises and institutions to connect policies, integrate resources,  
raise funds, and promote projects. So far, more than 20 countries and 100 transnational  
enterprises and institutions have applied to join the alliance.  
120  
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GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Column 4-2 The China-South Korea Grid Interconnection Project  
(I) Progress of the China-South Korea Grid Interconnection Project  
In March 2016, at the Global Energy Interconnection Conference, Korea Electric  
Power Corporation, SGCC, Softbank Group, and Russian Grids signed a  
Memorandum of Cooperation on Northeast Asia Power Interconnection.  
In December 2017, during South Korean President Moon Jae-In’s visit to China,  
GEIDCO, the Korea Electric Power Corporation, and SGCC signed a cooperation  
agreement at the China-South Korea Business Forum to explicitly promote the first  
phase of the project.  
The project’s pre-feasibility study was launched in April 2018 and completed in  
September 2018. GEIDCO organized a summary meeting of the pre-feasibility  
study and a special technical seminar in Beijing.  
In June 2019, GEIDCO and SGCC visited South Korea to attend the project’s  
working meeting to discuss the text of the feasibility agreement, planning and  
arrangement, and engineering technology. That July, the project’s working meeting  
was held in Beijing  
(II) Technical Solutions for the China-South Korea Grid Interconnection Project  
The project is proposed to use 500 kV DC submarine cable, with a transmission  
capacity of 2.2-2.4GW. It starts from in China, from Weihai, Shandong Province, and  
terminates in Incheon, South Korea, spanning about 351 km. The total investment  
is estimated to be USD 2.7billion-2.8 billion. There is an estimated 5200-7800  
utilization hours and a transmission cost of approximately 1.4-2.2 US cents/kWh.  
The price of electricity is to be as low as 6.4 US cents/kWh (100% thermal power),  
lower than the current average in Korea of 7.4 US cents/kWh (with coal power). The  
project is clearly competitive in terms of electricity price.  
Building cooperation platforms. Over the past four years, GEIDCO has actively built  
cooperation platforms promoting the development of GEI. Now with its global member  
network, alliance network, cooperation network, working network and think tank platform  
basically completed, GEIDCO has continued to expand its influence, becoming an  
important force in advancing international energy cooperation and green, low-carbon  
development. In terms of its member network, it includes over 1000 members from  
130 countries, involving such fields as energy, finance, and science and technology.  
In terms of its alliance network, four professional alliances have been established for  
GEI institutions, think tanks, finance, and equipment; these alliances cover 177 members  
from over 30 countries. In terms of its cooperation network, GEIDCO has established  
cooperation relations and signed 48 cooperation agreements with UN-related institutions  
121  
Towards Sustainable Development  
and other important international organizations, as well as governments, enterprises,  
and institutions hailing from over 100 countries across five continents. It has also built a  
global multi-level cooperation network by conducting joint research with institutions and  
universities such as the International Electrotechnical Commission, CIGRE, Argonne  
National Laboratory, Chatham House, Helmholtz Association of German Research  
Centres, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Harvard University, and  
Imperial College London. In terms of its working network, GEIDCO has set up seven  
regional offices and 62 national representative offices around the world, as well as  
advisory (consultative) and technical (academic) committees composed of renowned  
experts from within China as well as abroad, forming an efficient working network with  
global coverage. In terms of its think tank platform, GEIDCO established the Global  
Energy Interconnection Information Data Center, enabling the online collection, analysis, and  
comprehensive display of global energy, economic, and environmental data; it also founded  
the Journal of Global Energy Interconnection, available in both Chinese and English, which  
has become an important carrier of academic exchange and technological innovation.  
Membership  
1053  
80  
Initial members  
Current members  
Figure 4-5 GEIDCO Membership  
Figure 4-6 Journal of Global Energy Interconnection, in Chinese and English  
122  
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GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
4.2 Practices and Achievements of Energy Interconnection in China  
4.2.1 Practices of China’s Energy Interconnection  
China’s energy interconnection is an important part of GEI. Since the beginning of  
the new century, China has witnessed rapid economic development and a sharp  
increase in energy demand, which has led to serious problems such as the coal-based  
energy structure and environmental pollution. In response to the challenges, based on  
technological innovation, China has advanced energy interconnection and promoted  
energy transition, thereby embarking on a path of clean, low-carbon and sustainable  
development. By the end of 2019, China had an installed power-generating capacity of  
2.01 TW, a total electricity consumption of 7200 TWh, an installed capacity of non-fossil  
fuel power of 820 GW, an electricity consumption per capita of 5186 kWh, 1.94 million  
km of transmission lines of 35 kV and above, and a substation capacity of 6.5 billion  
kVA, which were respectively 6.3 times, 5.5 times, 10.3 times, 4.9 times, 2.7 times, and  
6.5 times that of year 2000. Major breakthroughs had been made in all aspects of power  
generation, transmission, distribution and usage, which strongly propped up China’s  
economic and social development.  
2500  
2000  
1500  
1000  
500  
800  
700  
600  
500  
400  
300  
200  
100  
0
720  
570  
2010  
420  
1520  
250  
970  
130  
520  
320  
0
2000  
2005  
2010  
Year  
2015  
2019  
Total installed generating capacity  
Total electricity consumption  
Figure 4-7 Changes in China’s Installed Power-generating Capacity and Total Electricity  
Consumption Since 2000  
123  
Towards Sustainable Development  
●
ꢀ UHV power grid develops at top speed. Since 2004, China has vigorously developed  
the UHV power grid and achieved all-round breakthroughs in technology, equipment,  
standards and engineering. As of now, China has built the world’s largest UHV AC/DC  
hybrid power grid. A total of 11 UHV AC projects and 14 UHV DC projects have been put  
into operation, and 3 UHV AC projects and 4 UHV DC projects are under construction, with  
a total length of UHV transmission lines in operation and under construction of 45,000 km,  
a substation (converter station) capacity of 450 million kVA (kW), and a cross-regional  
transmission capacity of 150 GW. Thus it has become a major channel for China’s power  
transmission from west to east and from north to south.  
Column 4-3 Zhundong-Wannan ±1100 kV UHV DC  
Transmission Project  
The project has the highest voltage level, the largest transmission capacity, the  
longest transmission distance and the most advanced technologies in the world,  
setting a new record in transmission technology. Launched in January 2016 and put  
into operation on September 26, 2019, the project transmits electricity from Changji  
Converter Station in Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang, to Guquan  
Converter Station in Xuancheng, Anhui, with a total line length of 3324 km, covering  
six provinces (or autonomous regions) including Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi,  
Henan and Anhui. Thus it is hailed as a “Great Power Channel” connecting the  
West China with the East China. The project has a transmission power of 12 GW,  
which is equivalent to turning on 400 million 30 W electric lights at the same time.  
It can transmit 66 TWh of electricity to East China and reduce coal consumption in  
the region by about 30.24 million tonnes every year. It is of great significance for  
impelling the development of energy base in Xinjiang, ensuring the reliable supply  
of electricity in East China, boosting economic growth, and implementing the action  
plan for air pollution prevention and control.  
Figure 4-8 Sketch of Zhundong-Wannan ±1100 kV UHV DC Project Line  
124  
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GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
●
ꢀ Accelerating smart grid. Through actively expediting the intelligent development  
of power grids, a range of great achievements come to fruition in making technological  
breakthrough, developing equipment, and conducting engineering practices. A number  
of top-notch smart grid innovation projects have been completed and put into operation,  
including Zhangbei VSC DC Power Grid Project (see Column 2-2), Zhangbei National  
Wind and Solar Power Storage and Transmission Demonstration Project, 320 kV and  
1 GW Xiamen DC Flexible Transmission Project in Fujian, Nan’ao Multi-terminal VSC DC  
Project in Guangdong, 500 kV Unified Power Flow Controller Project in Suzhou, Jiangsu.  
The cumulative installed capacity of energy storage projects put into operation amounts to  
over 32 GW, ranking first in the world, of which the installed capacity of pumped storage  
exceeds 30 GW and the installed capacity of electrochemical energy storage exceeds 1.7  
GWA. Advanced technologies, such as the internet, big data and cloud computing, have  
been exploited to expand the business of power grids and improve the quality of power  
services. Over 600 million smart meters have been installed in total, enabling full-scale  
automatic collection of electricity consumption information. China has built the world’s  
most wide-ranging and technologically advanced intelligent Internet of Vehicles platform,  
and connected 1.22 million public and private charging piles. 10-plus cities, including  
Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Guangzhou, have bolstered the development of modern  
power distribution networks, built comprehensive smart grid demonstration projects,  
and explored an effective way to spur the building of smart cities. China has vigorously  
encouraged the upgrading and reconstruction of rural power grids and PV poverty  
alleviation projects, rendering electricity available to every household and three-phase  
electricity to every village, and to build a new-type rural power grid that is safe, reliable,  
energy-efficient, environmentally friendly and technologically advanced.  
1710  
Electrochemical  
energy storage  
9520  
30,300  
32,400  
Pumped storage  
171,000  
Total  
184,600  
0
50,000  
100,000  
150,000  
200,000  
Installed capacity (MW)  
China  
World  
Figure 4-9 Installed Capacity of Energy Storage Projects in China and the World  
Source: China Energy Storage Alliance. White Paper on Energy Storage Industry Research 2020.  
A
125  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Column 4-4 Zhangbei VSC DC Power Grid Project  
As a VSC DC power grid project, it is the first of its kind, with the highest voltage  
class and the largest transmission capacity. With a nominal voltage of 500 kV,  
and 500 kV DC transmission lines with a total length of 666 km, the project further  
includes four new converter stations in Zhangbei, Kangbao, Fengning and Beijing  
(see Figure 4-10), featuring a total converter capacity of 9 GW. Zhangbei and  
Kangbao Converter Stations are directly connected to large-scale clean energy as  
the sending end, Fengning Station, as the regulating end, is connected to the grid  
and pumped storage, and Beijing Station is connected to the capital load center as  
the receiving end. With a total investment of 12.5 billion yuan, the project started on  
February 28, 2018, and was completed and put into operation on June 29, 2020.  
Kangbao  
Fengning  
Zhangbei  
Beijing  
Figure 4-10 Zhangbei VSC DC Power Grid Project  
Figure 4-11 Aerial View of Zhangbei Converter Station of Zhangbei VSC DC  
Power Grid Project  
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The project is of great significance for prompting energy transition and green  
development, serving the low-carbon and green Beijing 2022 Olympic Winter  
Games, and boosting scientific and technological innovation.  
The project will facilitate the outbound consumption of new energy in  
Hebei. As a national comprehensive demonstration zone for renewable energy,  
Zhangjiakou is rich in wind power and solar power, but weak in local consumption  
capacity, thus a large-scale outbound consumption is of necessity. The project will  
link Zhangbei New Energy Base and Fengning Pumped Storage Power Station with  
Beijing’s load centers, stimulate the complementation and flexible consumption of  
various energy sources, and meet the needs of the development of Zhangjiakou  
Comprehensive Renewable Energy Demonstration Zone.  
Figure 4-12 Zhangjiakou Zhangbei PV Base  
The project will shore up the low-carbon and green Beijing 2022 Olympic  
Winter Games. Beijing has a developed economy and large demand for electricity.  
To ensure power supply and boost energy conservation and emission reduction, it  
is necessary to gradually increase the proportion of extraneous electricity and clean  
energy. By capitalizing on Zhangjiakou’s large-scale complementation of wind  
power and solar power and the flexible adjustment ability of pumped storage power  
station, the project can reduce the influence of the new energy output fluctuation on  
power grid, enhance Beijing’s capacity to receive extraneous electricity, and offer  
stable and reliable clean power to the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region. In so doing,  
the electricity received from outside Beijing will account for 70%, and the venues  
of Beijing 2022 Olympic Winter Games will be fully supplied with clean power, thus  
effectively serving the low-carbon Olympic zone.  
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The project will encourage breakthroughs in technology innovation of power  
grid. The project is a major scientific and technological demonstration project,  
which pools access to large-scale renewable energy, complementation and flexible  
consumption of various energy sources, and construction of DC power grid. With  
pioneering core technologies and key equipment, it has set 12 world records, and  
made a whopping difference in innovation and demonstration. The project is the  
first of its kind to make a breakthrough in DC power grid technology. For the first  
time, the four-terminal VSC DC annular power grid is built to raise the VSC DC  
power transmission voltage to 500 kV and the rated capacity of single converter  
to 1.5 GW. Such key DC grid equipment as DC circuit breaker, converter valve, and  
control and protection devices is also developed and applied for the first time.  
●
ꢀ Remarkable results come out in clean development. Grounded on technological  
and equipment innovation, China has witnessed rapid development of clean energy and  
continued optimization of its energy structure. By the end of 2019, the installed capacity  
of hydropower, wind power and solar power had reached 360 GW, 210 GW and 200 GW  
respectively, all ranking first in the world. With an installed capacity of nuclear power of  
48.74 GW, China ranked fourth in the world. The proportion of non-fossil fuels in primary  
energy consumption has increased from 9% in 2010 to 15%. Each year, it replaces 780  
Mtce of coal, and reduces CO2 emissions by 2.2 GtCO2, as well as SO2, NOX, smoke  
and other pollutants by about 10 million tonnes. Since 2010, China has accounted for  
over 40% of the world’s newly installed capacity of renewable energy. In 2019, 73.5% of  
China’s new electricity consumption was supported by new clean energy, and China’s  
clean energy development entered a new stage of large-scale “incremental replacement”.  
Biomass  
power  
1.1%  
Others  
1.8%  
Solar power  
generation  
10.2%  
Hydropower  
16.3%  
Pumped storage  
1.5%  
Wind power  
10.4%  
Nuclear power  
2.4%  
Gas power  
4.5%  
Coal power  
51.8%  
Figure 4-13 Proportion of Installed Capacity of Various Power Sources in China in 2019  
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GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
(%)  
45.0  
43.4  
33.7  
41.9  
32.6  
40.7  
30.9  
38.6  
30.2  
40.0  
35.0  
30.0  
25.0  
36.5  
29.2  
34.7  
27.2  
20.0  
2015  
2016  
2017  
2018  
2019  
2020 (predicted)  
Year  
Proportion of installed clean energy power  
Proportion of clean energy power generation  
Figure 4-14 Proportion of Installed Capacity and generating capacity of  
Clean Energy in China from 2015 to 2020  
(%)  
14  
12  
10  
8
11.5  
10.4  
10.2  
9.7  
9.2  
11.1  
9.2  
7.3  
8.9  
8.6  
6
6.2  
3.4  
4.6  
4.0  
5.5  
3.1  
5.2  
2.5  
4.7  
4
2.8  
3.2  
2
1.8  
0.7  
1.1  
0
2015  
2016  
2017  
2018  
2019  
2020(predicted)  
Year  
Proportion of installed  
solar power generation  
proportion of solar power  
generating capacity  
Proportion of  
Proportion of wind  
power generation  
installed wind power  
Figure 4-15 Proportion of Installed Capacity and Generating Capacity of  
Wind and Solar Power in 2015-2020  
●
ꢀ Energy efficiency is greatly improved. In terms of power generation, the  
consumption of thermal power generating units is largely reduced. Specifically, the  
average coal consumption of thermal power plants of 6000 kW and above has dropped  
from 392 gce/kWh in 2000 to 306.4 gce/kWh. Among them, the coal consumption of ultra-  
supercritical unit with double-reheat cycle is as low as 266 gce/kWh, making it the thermal  
power unit with the optimal comprehensive indicators in the world. As to transmission,  
the efficiency of power transmission is constantly improved. To be more specific, the  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
transmission capacity of a single UHV DC project has reached 12 GW, with a transmission  
distance exceeding 3300 km. The comprehensive line loss rate of the entire grid has  
dropped from 7.81% in 2000 to 5.93%, which measures up to advanced world standards.  
As for electricity consumption, electric heating, electric boilers, electric drainage and  
irrigation, and port shore power are widely popularized, and the car park of EVs has  
reached 3.3 millionA. Clean and efficient electricity takes the place of fossil fuels, such as  
scattered coal and fuel oil, thus improving energy efficiency and reducing emissions. The  
proportion of electricity in final energy consumption has increased from 11% in 2000 to  
25%, and its share and growth rate are both higher than the global average level.  
5000  
4800  
4500  
4000  
3500  
3300  
3300  
3000  
2500  
2000  
1500  
1000  
500  
2300  
1900  
1200  
1200  
700  
600  
400  
300  
100  
2014  
0
2015  
2016  
2017  
2018  
2019  
Year  
China  
World  
Figure 4-16 Statistics of EV Car Park in China and the World from 2014 to 2019B  
International cooperation is accelerated. International cooperation in the fields of  
nuclear power, thermal power, hydropower, new energy power generation and power  
transmission and transformation is strengthened in an all-round way. By the end of 2019,  
the total actual overseas investment of major Chinese power companies exceeded  
USD 87 billion, and the cumulative value of newly signed foreign engineering contracts  
exceeded USD 280 billion. Interconnection of power grids with such neighboring  
countries as Russia, Mongolia, Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar is deeply enhanced to realize  
transnational interconnection and cross-border power trade. Capital has been introduced  
into dozens of national power projects in the Philippine, Myanmar, Russia, France, Italy,  
Egypt, Ethiopia, the US, Canada, Chile, Australia and more. Projects such as the Belo  
Mountain Hydropower 800 kV UHV DC Transmission Project in Brazil, Ethiopia-Kenya  
500 kV DC Transmission Project, Coca Codo Sinclair Hydropower Station in Ecuador,  
Kaleta Hydropower Station in Guinea, and Noor Solar-thermal Power Plant in Morocco  
have all generated fruitful social and economic benefits.  
Source: IEA (2020), Electric Vehicles, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/electric-vehicles.  
Source: IEA (2020), Electric Vehicles, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/electric-vehicles.  
A
B
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Figure 4-17 Belo Mountain Hydropower ±800 kV UHV DC Transmission Project in Brazil  
4.2.2 Thoughts and Outlook on China Energy Interconnection  
Overall Thinkingꢀ  
In the development of China’s energy interconnection, concerted efforts will be made  
in energy production, consumption and market, in a bid to transform the energy pattern  
dominated by coal, oil and gas, build a clean, electricity-centered and interconnected  
energy system, and pave the way for green, low-carbon and sustainable energy  
development.  
A shift towards energy production mode with emphasis on clean energy. Attempts  
should be made in vigorously developing solar power in West China, wind power in  
Northeast, Northwest and North China, as well as hydropower in Southwest China,  
developing distributed energy and offshore wind power based on local conditions,  
developing nuclear power in a safe and efficient way, supporting the development of  
pumped storage and electrochemical energy storage systems, ensuring energy supply  
through coordinating wind power, solar power, hydropower and pumped storage, thus  
fostering the “green engine” for the high-quality development. China will strictly control the  
total scale of coal power, optimize the distribution, adjust the positioning, and speed up  
the transition. China will also reduce inefficient coal power in the eastern and central parts  
of the country, and all newly-added facilities will be distributed in the western and northern  
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regions. The installed capacity of coal power will peak by 2025, and then gradually be  
reduced. The functional positioning of coal power is gradually shifted from the main power  
source to the regulated power source, which can better propel the development of clean  
energy.  
A shift towards electricity-centered energy consumption. China will accelerate  
the replacement of electricity for coal, oil, gas and firewood, thus shaping an energy  
consumption pattern dominated by electricity, which will greatly improve China’s energy  
efficiency and serve as the fundamental way to realize the energy consumption revolution.  
China will fully implement electricity replacement in such energy-using fields as industry,  
transport, commerce, agriculture, and life, improve the quality and efficiency of energy  
consumption, revert coal, oil and gas to their original role as industrial raw materials, and  
create greater value. Apart from that, on the basis of sufficient and economical clean  
energy, China will push ahead with electro-hydrogen, methane and other fuels and raw  
materials, and cultivate new green recycling industries, for the purpose of providing strong  
support for high-quality economic development.  
Large-scale optimization of energy allocation through large power grid and large  
market. China will speed up the development of a national energy optimization and  
allocation platform with smart grid as the basis and UHV grid as the backbone, foster two  
synchronous power grids with the west as the sending end and the east as the receiving  
end, and comprehensively improve the allocation capacity and safety level. In so doing,  
the needs for large-scale access, transmission and consumption of clean energy can  
be satisfied, and the curtailment of hydropower, wind power and PV power, and “surplus  
electricity” can be fundamentally resolved. In addition, relying on large power grids,  
China will accelerate the development of a unified national power market, give full play  
to the decisive role of market in resource allocation, and better impel cross-regional and  
cross-provincial energy transactions and cost-effective energy allocation. China will also  
strengthen international energy cooperation, actively stimulate power interconnection  
between China and neighboring countries such as Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan,  
Myanmar and Laos, make use of international resources, enrich energy supply systems,  
and ensure energy security while opening up.  
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Development Prospects  
Three steps should be taken to build China’s energy interconnection, expedite energy  
reform and transition, and shape a clean, low-carbon and efficient modern energy system.  
The first step will be incremental replacement. By 2025, China will fundamentally  
reverse the growth momentum of fossil fuels, peak the scale of coal power generation and  
optimize its layout, and meet most of the new energy demand by clean energy.  
●
ꢀ Clean development: clean energy will be the main driving force for energy  
development. By 2025, the total coal consumption will peak, the installed coal power  
capacity will reach the peak, the proportion of clean energy in primary energy will rise  
from 15% in 2019 to 26%A, and the proportion of clean energy installed capacity will  
increase from 42% in 2019 to 57%, and that of clean energy generating capacity from  
33% to 45%.  
●
ꢀ Low-carbon development: carbon emissions will reach the peak. Carbon emissions  
from the energy system will rise slowly from 9.4 GtC in 2018 to a peak of 9.7 GtC in 2025.  
●
ꢀ Efficient development: electricity replacement will advance at a fast pace. The  
proportion of electricity consumption in final energy consumption will increase from 25%  
in 2019 to 32% in 2025B.  
The second step will be stock replacement. By 2035, China will accelerate the clean  
replacement and electricity replacement of stored fossil fuels, advance the withdrawal  
of coal power, and make clean energy and electricity the largest energy sources on the  
production side and consumption side respectively.  
●
ꢀ Clean development: clean energy will become the uppermost energy source  
on the production side. The total consumption of coal will decline rapidly, and the  
withdrawal of coal power will be accelerated. Total consumption of oil and natural gas  
will peak by 2030 and 2035, respectively. In 2035, the installed coal power capacity will  
drop to 910 GW, the proportion of clean energy in primary energy will rise to 47%, and the  
installed capacity and generating capacity of clean energy will account for 75% and 69%  
of the total, respectively.  
●
ꢀ Low-carbon development: carbon emissions will drop off rapidly. Carbon  
emissions from the energy system will fall to 6.7 GtC by 2035.  
When calculating the proportion of clean energy in primary energy, the total primary energy does not  
include non-energy utilization such as fossil fuels as raw materials.  
A
B
When calculating the proportion of electricity in final energy, the total electricity consumption includes  
electricity used for electrohydrogen production and electrosynthesis of fuel, and the total final energy  
does not include non-energy utilization such as fossil fuels as raw materials.  
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Efficient development: electricity will become the foremost energy source on the  
consumption side. By 2035, the proportion of electricity consumption in final energy  
consumption will rise to 41%.  
The third step will be all-sided transformation. By 2050, China’s energy interconnection  
will come into being, with clean energy accounting for 74% of primary energy and energy  
consumption per unit of GDP reduced by over 60% from the current level, thus achieving  
clean, low-carbon and efficient energy development.  
●
ꢀ Clean development: clean energy production will be enhanced greatly. By 2050,  
the total consumption of coal, oil and natural gas will account for only 12%, 6% and 8%  
of the total energy consumption. Installed coal power generation will fall to 400 GW, the  
proportion of clean energy in primary energy will rise to 74%, and the installed capacity  
and generating capacity of clean energy will account for 90% and 91% of the total,  
respectively.  
●
ꢀ Low-carbon development: carbon emissions will continue to decline. Carbon  
emissions from the energy system will fall to 3 GtC by 2050.  
Efficient development: electrification of energy consumption will be significantly  
enhanced. By 2050, the share of electricity consumption in final energy consumption will  
rise to 53%.  
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4.2.3 China Energy Interconnection Effectively Will Boost Sustainable  
Economic and Social Development  
Ensuring Energy Supply  
●
ꢀ Improving energy supply capacity. China’s energy interconnection can further the  
development of clean energy and enable sufficient, economic, stable and reliable energy  
supply for economic and social development. By 2050, China’s supply of clean energy  
such as hydropower, wind power and solar power will reach 4.2 Gtce, meeting 74% of its  
primary energy demand and fundamentally resolving tight energy supply.  
●
ꢀ Enhancing energy self-sufficiency capacity. Through the electricity replacement in  
various fields, China will vigorously motivate the replacement of imported fossil fuels with  
self-developed clean electricity and electrosynthesis of fuel on the energy consumption  
side to reduce the final consumption of oil and gas. By 2035 and 2050, China’s energy  
self-sufficiency rate will increase to 88% and 95%, respectively.  
●
ꢀ Strengthening emergency response capacity. In the fight against COVID-19, from  
February to April 2020, more than 15 TWh of electricity was transmitted to central China  
from the UHV power grids in northern and western China, effectively meeting the energy  
needs of Hubei and other regions. Through accelerating the development of China’s  
energy interconnection, China will give full play to the advantages of large UHV grids in  
wide-ranging resource allocation, and enhance the country’s energy emergency response  
capability in major public emergencies.  
Driving Economic Growth  
●
ꢀ Fostering new momentum for economic growth. China’s energy interconnection is  
an important new interconnection infrastructure that gathers advanced technologies and  
emerging industries such as new energy, new materials, high-end power equipment, new  
energy storage, 5G, big data, and EVs. With a wide coverage and strong driving force, it  
will bolster the upgrading of industrial chain and the improvement of value chain, foster  
new mode and new business for economic development, and provide a strong, stable  
and everlasting driving force for high-quality economic development.  
●
ꢀ Reducing energy cost of the whole society. China will intensively develop large wind  
power, solar power and hydropower bases in the resource-rich northern and western  
regions, coordinate time zone differences, resource difference, price differences and  
other factors, and optimize the country-wide allocation based on the large power grid,  
which is far more economical and reasonable than developing coal power and gas power  
in the load-bearing eastern region. China will speed up the clean energy development  
and utilization through energy interconnection. By 2035 and 2050, China will lower the  
electricity prices by 0.06 yuan/kWh and 0.12 yuan/kWh respectively, and reduce the  
annual energy cost of the whole society by 700 billion yuan and 1.7 trillion yuan. In so  
doing, it is expected to lower the cost of enterprise and society, stimulate economic vitality  
and market potential in the country, and drive an average annual GDP growth of about 0.3%.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
●
ꢀ Boosting investment and employment. Energy interconnection is a capital-intensive  
industry. Under the new situation of regular COVID-19 prevention and control and increased  
uncertainty of the external environment, accelerating investment and development of  
China’s energy interconnection will play a “locomotive” role in the recovery of economic  
growth. If the proportion of installed capacity of clean energy is increased by 12  
percentage points by the end of 2025, the investment in clean energy and power grid  
would reach at least 7-8 trillion yuan, and more than 9 million jobs would be created.  
China will further the electrification of such sectors as steel, metallurgy, transport, and  
buildings, and strengthen the positive role of energy interconnection in stabilizing  
enterprises, introducing investment, and expanding employment.  
●
ꢀ Reducing the loss of stranded coal power assets. By strictly controlling the total  
amount of coal power and optimizing its layout, the coal-fired power units can reach a  
peak in 2025, effectively reducing the risk of early decommissioning of a large number of  
coal units during operation and reducing the loss of stranded assets.  
●
ꢀ Significantly increasing energy efficiency. China’s energy interconnection can give  
full play to the advantages of economical and efficient electricity, impel the transformation  
and upgrading of industrial structure, reduce the proportion of high energy-consuming  
industries, and greatly improve energy efficiency. Energy consumption per unit of GDP is  
expected to fall to 140 Mtce per USD 10,000 by 2050, a 20% reduction from the current  
Business-as-Usual (BAU) scenario.  
Promoting Clean Development  
●
ꢀ Alleviating environmental pollution. China’s energy interconnection will play a pivotal  
role in reducing air pollution, conserving water resources and combating desertification.  
By 2035 and 2050, the annual emissions of air pollutants such as SO2, NOX and PM 2.5  
will be reduced by 15 million and 27 million tonnes, respectively, and 70 billion and 140  
billion tonnes of fresh water will be saved, equivalent to 10% and 20% of China’s current  
annual water consumption.  
●
ꢀ Reducing energy carbon emissions. China’s energy interconnection will spur the “two  
decouplings” (decoupling of energy system from carbon and decoupling of economic  
development from carbon emission reduction) with “two replacements” (clean replacement  
and electricity replacement), thereby fundamentally addressing the contradiction between  
development and emission reduction, and achieving emission reduction targets in an  
efficient way. By 2025, the carbon emissions of the energy sector will peak at 9.7 GtCO2,  
and by 2035 and 2050, it will drop to about 6.7 GtCO2 and 3 GtCO2 respectively, making  
an important contribution to global climate governance.  
●
ꢀ Improving people’s living environment. China’s energy interconnection will  
fundamentally improve the ecological environment, enable people coexist more  
harmoniously with nature, significantly reduce the risk of natural disasters, reduce  
diseases caused by pollution, improve people’s health and happiness.  
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Building a Harmonious Society  
●
ꢀ Advancing the China Western Development in new era. Although the West China is  
rich in clean energy resources, it is mired in an underdeveloped economy. China’s energy  
interconnection will boost the large-scale development of clean energy in the west and  
north, develop supporting industries, and transform resource advantages into economic  
advantages, thereby tackling the uneven and inadequate development in the west, and  
achieving coordinated regional development. By 2050, the transfer of clean power from  
the north and west will boost per capita disposable income by more than 2 percentage  
points.  
●
ꢀ Advancing poverty alleviation with wind and solar power in the northwest. China  
will build distributed PV power stations, large wind and solar power bases, hydropower  
stations, power transmission channels and other major energy projects in poverty-stricken  
areas, carry out “PV poverty alleviation” and other new targeted poverty alleviation  
modes, and turn plateau and desert into “wind power, solar power and electricity field” to  
replace the traditional “oil, gas and coal field”. In this way, China will transform from “blood  
transfusion” poverty alleviation to “blood-making” poverty alleviation, increase the income,  
expand employment, improve people’s livelihood, and combine energy revolution with  
poverty alleviation.  
●
ꢀ Satisfying people’s demand for a better life. China’s energy interconnection will  
vigorously deepen the integration of energy and information and data technologies,  
boost the intelligentization of energy systems, meet people’s new needs on remote home  
appliance control and EV charging, and power the development of smart home, smart  
building, smart community, smart plant, smart city and smart country, thus enabling  
everyone to bask in a smart and satisfying life. Additionally, China will realize friendly  
interaction and coordinated development of power-grid-load-storage, explore new  
business models, and fully meet diversified and personalized energy needs.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
4.3 Ten Actions for GEI to Implement the 2030 Agenda  
Years of practical experience have shown that, it requires efforts to provide the necessary  
guarantee and support in terms of ideological understanding, capacity development,  
technical funding, and supporting policies, in an effort to accelerate the development of  
GEI, achieve the SDGs of 2030 Agenda. To that end, we have put forward “Ten Actions” to  
build GEI (see Figure 4-18). Among them, constructive actions involve clean development,  
universal access to electricity, power grid interconnection, electricity replacement, smart  
grid, and energy efficiency enhancement. Supportive ones involve concept promotion,  
innovation driven, capacity building and policy support. This chapter offers the analysis  
of the progress in terms of aforementioned actions, and specific measures to accelerate  
those actions in the future based on the actual situations of different countries and  
regions.  
Concept  
promotion  
Build the ideological foundation for jointly promoting the development of GEI by mobilizing  
all sectors of society and intensifying efforts to promote ideas  
Clean  
development  
Accelerate the development of clean energy globally and significantly increase the proportions  
of clean energy in the energy mix  
Power grid  
interconnection  
Strengthen the interconnection of domestic, transnational and transcontinental  
power grids, and build a safe, inclusive and efficient power grid infrastructure  
Universal access Reduce and eliminate the global population without access to electricity and  
make modern energy sources affordable and sustainable for all  
to electricity  
Electricity  
replacement  
Replace coal, oil, gas and firewood with electricity in various fields, significantly  
increasing the proportion of electricity in the final energy consumption  
Accelerate the deployment of various types of intelligent technologies and equipment in the  
global power system to meet the future needs for large-scale grid integration and consumption  
of clean energy and for flexible access and interactive services for various types of electric equipment  
Smart grid  
Reduce energy intensity and establish an efficient and sustainable approach to energy  
development, by relying on technological advances, digitalization of energy sources and  
shifts in consumption patterns  
Energy efficiency  
enhancement  
Make innovative breakthroughs in related technology and equipment, business  
model, investment and financing system as soon as possible, so as to provide  
technical and financial guarantee for the smooth implementation of engineering projects  
Innovation  
driven  
Harness the power of the international community to help developing countries accelerate  
the enhancement of their development capacities, scientific and technological capabilities  
and research capabilities through international assistance and cooperation and exchanges  
Capacity  
building  
Propel the formulation of government policies, plans and measures to promote the  
development of GEI, and to bring into play the guiding and coordinating role of international  
organizations, thereby enhancing policy compatibility and synergy among countries  
Policy  
support  
Figure 4-18 Ten Actions for GEI  
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4.3.1 Concept Promotion  
Ideas guide actions. GEI is a new concept that has been proposed for a short period of time.  
Therefore, it is necessary to mobilize all sectors of society and intensify efforts to promote  
ideas, in a bid to build the ideological foundation for jointly promoting the development of GEI.  
In days to come, the focus will be on the GEI to promote energy transition, the implementation of  
the 2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement, expanding communication channels and intensifying  
communication efforts for different subjects, so as to build greater global consensus and synergy.  
●
ꢀ Promoting GEI as an important vehicle for the United Nations to achieve sustainable  
development goals, including addressing climate change and promoting environmental  
governance. Emphasis will be placed on publicizing the important role of GEI in promoting  
sustainable development of mankind and the inclusion of GEI as a priority for the United  
Nations, establishing a working mechanism, formulating international rules, strengthening  
cooperation among countries and guiding their joint participation in GEI building.  
●
ꢀ Promoting the inclusion of GEI into energy strategies, policies and planning of countries  
and international intergovernmental organizations. Emphasis will be placed on publicizing  
the important role of GEI in promoting the energy transition, reducing carbon emissions,  
protecting the ecological environment and promoting economic growth, as well as  
promoting the inclusion of large-scale development and utilization of clean energy in the  
energy and power development plans of relevant countries.  
●
ꢀ Encouraging energy and power enterprises to participate in the building of GEI.  
Emphasis will be placed on publicizing the important role of GEI in driving energy  
transition, improving production efficiency and promoting cost reduction and  
efficiency gains, promoting relevant enterprises to strengthen innovation and proactive  
transformation, continuously enhancing the internal drive for clean and low-carbon  
development, and actively participating in GEI investment and development.  
●
ꢀ Encouraging universities and think tanks to step up innovation in GEI. Emphasis should be  
placed on publicizing the important role of GEI in promoting innovative thinking and technological  
innovation, and promoting relevant institutions to carry out relevant policy research, technical  
research and transformation of achievements, so as to support the innovative development of GEI.  
●
ꢀ Promoting active investment in GEI projects by multilateral development banks, funds  
and other financial institutions. Emphasis should be placed on publicizing the economic  
value of GEI, especially its enormous benefits in the medium and long term, advancing  
the relevant institutions to strengthen their innovation in financial instruments, and  
participating in clean energy development and power grid interconnection projects as  
investors, so as to provide long-term and stable financial security for GEI.  
●
ꢀ Promoting public understanding and recognition of the concept of GEI. Emphasis  
should be placed on publicizing the basic connotations and important values of GEI, so  
as to enable more people to embrace the concept of green and low-carbon development  
and promote social consensus.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
4.3.2 Clean Development  
Clean energy is fundamental to the development of GEI. This action includes accelerating  
the development of clean energy globally, and significantly increasing the proportions of  
clean energy in the energy mix, in a bid to shape a landscape for energy development  
with clean energy playing the main role as soon as possible.  
Recent years have seen the active moves to develop clean energy in many countries.  
According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) [1], the global installed  
capacity of clean energy reached 2.54 TW in 2019, doubling from 2010, with an average  
annual growth rate of 7.5%, as shown in Figure 4-19. In 2019, the newly installed capacity  
of clean energy reached 176 GW, accounting for 72% of the global total new installed  
capacity.  
3000  
2537  
2500  
2000  
1846  
1500  
1227  
1000  
500  
0
2010  
2015  
Year  
2019  
Asia  
Africa  
Europe  
North  
South  
Central America  
Oceania  
America  
America  
and Caribbean area  
Figure 4-19 Installed Capacity of Clean Energy across Continents from 2010 to 2019  
By category, hydropower grows slowly, with an average annual growth rate of 2.5% from  
2010 to 2019; wind and solar power grow faster, with an average annual growth rate of  
13% and 30% respectively, as shown in Figure 4-20. By region, Asia, Europe, and North  
America take the lead in the growth of wind and solar power. In 2019, Asia, Europe,  
and North America added 55%, 22%, and 13% of the global new installed capacity,  
respectively.  
According to the GEIDCO, it is necessary to coordinate clean energy resource  
endowments and demand distribution across continents in the future, take centralized  
development as the lead, and synergize distributed development, in an effort to  
accelerate the development of global clean energy resources.  
140  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
3000  
2500  
2000  
1500  
1000  
500  
586  
623  
222  
416  
42  
181  
1310  
1210  
1025  
2010  
0
2015  
2019  
Year  
Hydropower  
Wind Power  
Solar Power  
Figure 4-20 Global Installed Capacity of Hydropower, Wind Power and Solar Power from  
2010 to 2019  
Developing Solar Power Bases  
1
The theoretical reserves of global solar energy resources are about 150,000,000 TWh/yr,  
with Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, Central and South America and Oceania  
accounting for 25%, 40%, 2%, 10%, 8% and 15% respectively. From the distribution  
of solar resources shown in Figure 4-21, it can be seen that the regions with annual  
GHI of more than 2000 kWh/m2 are mainly located in the Sahara Desert of North Africa,  
southwestern Africa, western and central Asia, southern North America, northern Chile of  
South America and northwestern Australia. In these regions, it is necessary to speed up  
the development of nine large-scale solar power basesA, with a total installed capacity of  
1.7 TW by 2035 and 3.8 TW by 2050. See Table 4-3 for a list of all bases and Figure 4-22  
for the development layout.  
Figure 4-21 Global Distribution of Annual GHI of Solar Power  
A solar power generation base refers to a collection of multiple solar power stations such as PV power  
stations and solar thermal power stations in a given area.  
A
141  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Table 4-3 Development of Global Large-scale Solar Power Bases  
Technically  
Exploitable  
Capacity  
(GW)  
Installed  
Capacity by  
2035  
Installed  
Capacity by  
2050  
GHI  
Area  
Solar Power Bases  
(kWh/m2)  
(GW)  
(GW)  
Western China  
Central Asia  
1800-2000  
1500-1900  
2000-2200  
1700-2000  
2200-2400  
1800-2200  
2000-2200  
1570  
240  
550  
60  
1210  
140  
980  
1010  
110  
43  
Asia  
Western Asia  
South Asia  
1530  
1370  
1200  
360  
490  
400  
53  
Northern Africa  
Southern Africa  
Africa  
18  
North America Southern United States  
870  
91  
177  
Central and  
Northern Chile  
South America  
2300-2400  
2200  
43  
143  
Oceania  
Northern Australia  
Total  
2100-2200  
–
100  
6
10  
9440  
1710  
3820  
Figure 4-22 Development Layout of Global Large-scale Solar Power Bases  
142  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Developing Wind Power Bases  
2
The theoretical reserves of global solar power resources are about 2,050,000 TWh/yr, with  
Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, Central and South America and Oceania accounting  
for 24%, 32%, 7%, 21%, 11% and 5% respectively. From the distribution of wind power  
resources shown in Figure 4-23, it can be seen that the regions with highest wind speed  
are mainly located in Greenland, eastern North America, southern South America,  
northern Europe, northern Africa and southern Oceania. In these regions, it is necessary  
to speed up the development of 16 large wind power basesA, with a total installed  
capacity of 900 GW by 2035 and 1.49 TW by 2050. See Table 4-4 for a list of major bases  
and Figure 4-24 for the development layout.  
Figure 4-23 Distribution of Global Average Annual Wind Speed  
Table 4-4 Global Large-scale Wind Power Bases  
Technically  
Exploitable  
Capacity  
(GW)  
Installed  
Capacity by  
2035  
Installed  
Capacity by  
2050  
Mean  
Velocity  
(m/s)  
Large Wind Power  
Bases  
Area  
Asia  
(GW)  
(GW)  
Okhotsk  
Sakhalin  
6-7  
6-7  
6-7  
2600  
89  
5
20  
45  
60  
25  
26  
Central Asia  
81  
Western and Northern  
China  
6-7  
1010  
577  
811  
A wind base refers to a collection of multiple wind farms in a given area.  
A
143  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Continued  
Technically  
Exploitable  
Capacity  
(GW)  
Installed  
Capacity by  
2035  
Installed  
Capacity by  
2050  
Mean  
Velocity  
(m/s)  
Large Wind Power  
Bases  
Area  
(GW)  
(GW)  
North Sea  
Baltic Sea  
10-12  
8-10  
10-12  
11-13  
8-10  
7-9  
300  
163  
48  
78  
45  
5
133  
65.3  
16  
Europe  
Norwegian Sea  
Greenland  
30  
12  
12  
10  
4
14.3  
33.6  
20  
Barents Sea  
80  
Northern Africa  
Eastern Africa  
Southern Africa  
Central America  
109  
57  
Africa  
7-9  
15  
7-9  
56  
7
17  
North America  
8-10  
790  
67  
152  
Central and  
South America  
Southern Argentina  
8-12  
–
351  
40  
85  
Total  
5764  
915  
1487.2  
Figure 4-24 Development Layout of Global Large-scale Wind Power Bases  
144  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Developing Hydropower Bases  
3
The theoretical reserves of global hydropower energy resources are about 39,000 TWh/yr,  
with Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, Central and South America and Oceania  
accounting for 47%, 11%, 6%, 14%, 20% and 2% respectively. Global rivers with large-  
scale development conditions are mainly located in southwest China’s Jinsha and Yarlung  
Zangbo Rivers, Southeast Asia’s Mekong and Irrawaddy, South Asia’s Indus, Russia’s  
Ob River, Yenisei and Lena River, Africa’s Congo River, Nile Valley, Zambezi and Niger  
River, South America’s Amazon River, as well as Northern Europe’s Norway and Sweden.  
Globally, it is necessary to speed up the construction of 15 large hydropower basesA, with  
a total installed capacity of 880 GW by 2035 and 1.3 TW by 2050. See Table 4-5 for a list  
of all hydropower bases and Figure 4-25 for the development layout.  
Table 4-5 Development of Global Large-scale Hydropower Power Bases  
Technically  
Exploitable  
Capacity  
(GW)  
Installed  
Capacity by  
2035  
Installed  
Capacity by  
2050  
Proportion of  
Development  
in 2050 (%)  
Large Hydropower  
Bases  
Area  
Asia  
(GW)  
(GW)  
Russia  
Southwest China  
Central Asia  
Indo-China Peninsula  
South Asia  
140  
420  
60  
58  
212  
18  
100  
292  
24  
72  
70  
40  
85  
94  
88  
75  
77  
80  
94  
80  
57  
77  
76  
126.4  
181.5  
120  
80  
75  
110  
170  
106  
60  
110  
92.5  
30  
Northern Europe  
Turkey  
Europe  
Africa  
Congo River  
Nile River  
150  
60  
40  
115  
48  
30  
Zambezi  
16  
10  
15  
Niger River  
20  
10  
16  
Western Canada  
59  
27  
34  
North America Western Hudson Bay  
Labrador Plateau  
14  
10  
11  
96  
61  
73  
Central and  
Amazon River  
South America  
140  
94  
114  
81  
76  
Total  
1682.9  
877.5  
1288  
A hydropower base is a collection of multiple hydropower plants in a given range of one or more rivers.  
A
145  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Figure 4-25 Development Layout of Global Large-scale Hydropower Power Bases  
146  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
4.3.3 Power Grid Interconnection  
Power grid interconnection is a key measure for the efficient development and  
consumption of clean energy. This action aims to comprehensively strengthen the  
interconnection of domestic, transnational and transcontinental power grids, enhance the  
coverage, scale and quality of interconnection, and build a safe, inclusive and efficient  
power grid infrastructure, so as to provide a strong guarantee for the development of  
clean energy and the supply of electricity to all countries.  
Currently, global power grid lines cover about 75 million km2 and transnational lines cover  
about 10,000 km2 [2] in total. Large regional interconnected grids have been created in  
Europe, North America, Russia-the Baltic Sea and Gulf regions. The European power grid  
consists of five major synchronous grids involving Continental Europe, Northern Europe,  
the Baltic Sea, the UK and Ireland, with hundreds of transnational transmission lines  
interconnecting the member countries, enabling cross-border trading and large-scale  
allocation of electricity. The U.S.-Canada grid consists of four synchronous grids involving  
the eastern US, the western US, Texas and Quebec. It is interconnected by multiple DC  
and AC lines. The Russia-the Baltic Sea power grid spans eight time zones and serves 14  
countries in the CIS and Baltic region. Six Gulf countries, including Saudi Arabia, the UAE  
and Oman, completed the Gulf interconnected power grid in 2011. Six countries in Central  
America, including Panama and Costa Rica, have built 230 kV AC interconnected power  
grids. Countries such as China, India and Brazil have also attached great importance to  
the construction of power grids and have all interconnected their national power grids.  
In the future, the focus should be on accelerating transnational power grid interconnection  
based on domestic power grid interconnection, building interconnected power grids  
in Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, Central and South America and Oceania, and  
simultaneously promoting transcontinental power grid interconnection, so as to achieve  
integrated clean energy development, global allocation, complementarity across time  
zones and mutual benefit across seasons, thereby ensuring sustainable energy supply for  
all countries around the world.  
Building Power Grid Interconnection in Asia  
1
Among the Asian countries, the highest voltage level in China is 1000 kV AC, while that in  
South Korea and India is 765 kV AC. Most other countries use 500/400/220 kV AC as the  
main power system network, with low degree of transnational interconnection.  
In the future, Asia will be essentially interconnected by five regions including East  
Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia and West Asia, as shown in Figure 4-26.  
East Asia is an important load center and power distribution platform in Asia, with a  
1000/765/500 kV backbone grid. Southeast Asia is an area of growing power demand  
and a power transfer station between East Asia and South Asia, as well as Oceania and  
Asia, with Indochina Peninsula forming the 1000 kV AC main power grid and the rest of  
the region forming the 500 kV AC main power grid. South Asia is an electricity access  
center, with India strengthening its 765/400 kV synchronous power grid and Pakistan  
building a 500 kV main power grid. Central Asia is a clean energy base and a link  
147  
Towards Sustainable Development  
between Asia and Europe, with Kazakhstan building a 1000 kV AC ring power grid and  
other countries forming a 500 kV AC main power grid. West Asia is a clean energy base,  
forming 1000/765/500/400 kV AC main power grid, sending electricity to South Asia and  
Europe, with mutual aid in electricity with Africa. Major power grid interconnection projects  
in Asia are shown in Table 4-6.  
Table 4-6 Major Power Grid Interconnection Projects in Asia  
Cross- Investment  
Voltage Transmission  
Path  
Length  
(km)  
Trans-  
regional  
sea  
(100  
S/N  
Major Projects  
Classes  
(kV)  
Capacity  
(GW)  
Length million U.S.  
(km)  
0
dollars)  
56  
Ekibastuz–Henan DC  
Transmission Project  
1
2
800  
500  
8
3
4000  
0
Central Asia-  
East Asia  
Kyrgyzstan–China  
Back-to-back DC  
Transmission Project  
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.5  
2.4  
China–Myanmar  
Back-to-back DC  
Transmission Project  
3
4
5
6
7
500  
660  
500  
500  
660  
2
4
2
2
4
0
1600  
0
Yunnan–Ho Chi Minh  
DC Transmission  
Project  
17.8  
2.4  
East Asia-  
Southeast  
Asia  
China–Myanmar  
Back-to-back DC  
Transmission Project  
China–Laos Back-to-  
back DC Transmission  
Project  
0
2.4  
Yunnan–Mandalay–  
Chittagong DC  
1150  
15.5  
Transmission Project  
China–Indonesia  
Back-to-back DC  
Transmission Project  
8
9
500  
660  
500  
2
4
0
0
0
0
2.4  
14.7  
5.9  
Asia-South  
Asia  
Xinjiang–Nowshera  
1000  
750  
Sangtuda–Nowshera  
DC Transmission  
Project  
Central Asia-  
South Asia  
10  
1.3  
Aloberra-Hyderabad  
DC Transmission  
Project  
11  
12  
800  
800  
8
8
2200  
2300  
100  
100  
46.1  
47  
West Asia-  
South Asia  
Svehan-Jaipur DC  
Transmission Project  
148  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Continued  
Cross- Investment  
sea (100  
Length million U.S.  
Voltage Transmission  
Path  
Length  
(km)  
Trans-  
regional  
S/N  
Major Projects  
Classes  
(kV)  
Capacity  
(GW)  
(km)  
dollars)  
Lena River-Hebei DC  
Transmission Project  
13  
14  
15  
800  
800  
500  
8
8
2
2500  
2000  
300  
0
44.5  
Sakhalin-Tokyo DC  
Transmission Project  
80  
40  
43  
Russia-East  
Asia  
Sakhalin-Hokkaido DC  
Transmission Project  
6.7  
Khabarovsk-Chongjin-  
Daegu DC Transmission  
Project  
16  
800  
8
2300  
0
40.9  
Figure 4-26 Overall Layout of Asian Power Grid Interconnection  
149  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Building Power Grid Interconnection in Africa  
2
At present, most African countries have small power grids and low voltage levels.  
Except for South Africa, where the highest voltage level is 765 kV AC, other countries  
have a voltage level of 400 kV, 330 kV and 220 kV. Five countries in North Africa are  
synchronously interconnected and also with western Europe. Countries in southern Africa  
are largely interconnected, while other regions are less so.  
In the future, Africa will generally form three synchronous power grid in its north, central  
and west and southeast regions, with asynchronous interconnection between the  
synchronous power grids via EHVDC/UHVDC, as shown in Figure 4-27. In northern  
Africa, a 1000 kV AC power grid will be built across east and west to connect clean  
energy generation bases and load centers in the region, and an UHVDC channel will be  
built to send clean electricity to Europe. In western and central Africa, 765/400/330 kV  
AC main power grid will be built, and multiple EHVDC/UHVDC will be constructed to send  
clean energy, such as hydroelectric power from the Congo River to other regions of Africa.  
In southeast Africa, 765/500/400 kV AC main power grid will be built to complement the  
various clean energy sources in the region. Major power grid interconnection projects in  
Africa are shown in Table 4-7.  
Table 4-7 Major Power Grid Interconnection Projects in Africa  
Voltage Transmission  
Path  
Length  
(km)  
Investment  
(100 million  
U.S. dollars)  
Trans-  
regional  
S/N  
Major Projects  
Classes  
(kV)  
Capacity  
(GW)  
D.R. Congo-Guinea Phase I  
DC Transmission Project  
1
2
3
4
5
800  
800  
800  
660  
800  
8
8
8
4
8
4000  
3600  
2000  
1100  
2800  
56  
53  
20  
15  
45  
D.R. Congo-Guinea Phase II  
DC Transmission Project  
West Africa-  
Central Africa  
D.R. Congo-Nigeria DC  
Transmission Project  
Cameroon-Nigeria DC  
Transmission Project  
D.R. Congo-Ghana DC  
Transmission Project  
Central  
Africa-South  
Africa  
D.R. Congo-South Africa DC  
Transmission Project  
6
7
8
800  
1100  
800  
8
10  
8
3800  
6500  
4000  
54  
94  
56  
Central  
Africa-North  
Africa  
D.R. Congo-Morocco DC  
Transmission Project  
Central  
Africa-East  
Africa  
D.R. Congo-Ethiopia DC  
Transmission Project  
150  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Continued  
Investment  
(100 million  
U.S. dollars)  
Voltage Transmission  
Path  
Length  
(km)  
Trans-  
regional  
S/N  
Major Projects  
Classes  
(kV)  
Capacity  
(GW)  
East Africa-  
South Africa  
Ethiopia–South Africa DC  
Transmission Project  
9
800  
800  
8
8
–
2800  
1900  
6920  
45  
37  
East Africa-  
North Africa  
Ethiopia–Egypt DC  
Transmission Project  
10  
11  
Northern Africa AC  
Transmission Corridor Project  
North Africa  
1000  
187.5  
Figure 4-27 Overall Layout of African Power Grid Interconnection  
151  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Building Power Grid Interconnection in Europe  
3
The voltage level of power grids in Continental Europe, Northern Europe, the UK and  
Ireland is 400/380 kV AC, while the main power grid of the Baltic States is 330 kV, with  
close ties between countries and large power exchange capacity.  
In the future, Europe will generally form a DC power grid with Continental Europe as the  
core, connecting the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the Barents Sea  
wind power bases and the Northern Europe hydropower base, and connecting the clean  
energy bases in North Africa, West Asia and Central Asia, as shown in Figure 4-28. The  
British Isles will be interconnected with Continental Europe by a wind power transmission  
channel and with Northern Europe by a 800 kV DC. Northern Europe will build DC  
transmission channels with the British Isles, Continental Europe and the Baltic Sea power  
grids to send hydropower and wind power. The Continental Europe will build a main  
VSC-HVDC grid to enhance transnational power exchange capacity and meet the needs  
of a high proportion of clean energy systems, and build cross-regional and transcontinental  
channels to access wind power and hydropower in Northern Europe, as well as clean  
electricity including solar power from northern Africa, Central Asia and West Asia. The Baltic  
States will strengthen the 330 kV main power grid and the cross-regional interconnection  
channels. Major power grid interconnection projects in Europe are shown in Table 4-8.  
Table 4-8 Major Power Grid Interconnection Projects in Europe  
Voltage Transmission  
Path  
Length  
(km)  
Investment  
(100 million  
U.S. dollars)  
S/N  
1
Trans-regional  
Major Projects  
Class  
(kV)  
Capacity  
(GW)  
Norway–UK–France–  
Germany–Denmark–Norway  
VSC-HVDC Project  
British Isles-  
Northern Europe  
800  
40  
3384  
183  
Northern Europe-  
Baltic Sea-  
Eastern Europe-  
Western Europe  
Sweden–Finland–Latvia–  
Poland–Germany–Denmark–  
Sweden VSC-HVDC Project  
800/  
660  
2
3
8
8
3254  
2400  
104  
180  
Northern Europe- Greenland–Iceland–UK DC  
British Isles Transmission Project  
800  
152  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Figure 4-28 Overall Layout of European Power Grid Interconnection  
153  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Building Power Grid Interconnection in North America  
4
In North America, five AC synchronous power grids have been formed in its eastern and  
western regions, Texas, Quebec and Mexica, with a maximum voltage level of 765 kV AC,  
as well as 500/400 kV AC in most areas.  
In the future, North America will generally form three synchronous power grids in  
eastern North American, western North American and Quebec, as shown in Figure 4-29.  
Eastern North America will be interconnected simultaneously with Texas via 500 kV AC,  
strengthening the 765 kV main power grid in the Great Lakes region, and building a 1000  
kV backbone power grid covering the East Coast and Southeast load centers. Western  
North America will be interconnected simultaneously with the Mexican power grid via  
1000 kV AC, creating a 1000 kV grid on the West Coast covering Canada, the western  
US and Mexico. Quebec will maintain an asynchronous interconnection with the eastern  
North American power grid and build UHVDC to feed the eastern power grid. On the  
transcontinental level, a Mexico-Central and South America-Peru UHV line will be built  
to complement the electricity of North America and Central and South America. Major  
power grid interconnection projects in North America are shown in Table 4-9.  
Table 4-9 Major Power Grid Interconnection Projects in North America  
Voltage  
Classes  
(kV)  
Transmission  
Capacity  
(GW)  
Path  
Length  
(km)  
Investment  
(100 million  
U.S. dollars)  
S/N  
Major Projects  
Lander-Las Vegas UHVDC  
Transmission Project  
1
2
3
800  
800  
800  
8
8
8
1100  
2800  
2700  
45  
72  
71  
Lander-Morgantown UHVDC  
Transmission Project  
Kayenta-Atlanta UHVDC  
Transmission Project  
Four-circuit UHVDC Transmission  
Project from Central Base to  
Northeast DC Transmission Channel  
4
5
800  
800  
32  
24  
7000  
4200  
213  
154  
Three-circuit UHVDC Transmission  
Channel from Central Base to  
Southeast  
Three-circuit UHVDC Transmission  
Channel from Central Base to Texas  
6
7
8
800  
765  
24  
–
3200  
1780  
1165  
133  
38  
Northwestern US AC Ring Power  
Grid Project  
US East Coast UHV AC  
Transmission Corridor Project  
1000  
–
81  
154  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Continued  
Voltage  
Classes  
(kV)  
Transmission  
Capacity  
(GW)  
Path  
Length  
(km)  
Investment  
(100 million  
U.S. dollars)  
S/N  
9
Major Projects  
Southeastern US UHV AC Ring  
Power Grid Project  
1000  
–
845  
55  
US West Coast UHV AC  
Transmission Corridor Project  
10  
11  
1000  
1000  
–
–
2344  
2276  
108  
114  
Mexico AC Main Power Grid Project  
Figure 4-29 Overall Layout of North American Power Grid Interconnection  
155  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Building Power Grid Interconnection in Central and South America  
5
In South America, Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Colombia, Uruguay, Peru and Chile have  
formed the main 400/500 kV AC power grids, while the rest of the countries have a main  
power grid of 230 kV AC and below. Maximum voltage levels in Brazil and Venezuela  
are 750 kV AC and 765 kV AC. Brazil is interconnected with Paraguay, Argentina, and  
Uruguay by multiple circuits of 750 kV AC, 500 kV AC, and 220 kV AC, as well as by back-  
to-back DC. Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela are interconnected by 230 kV AC and  
115 kV AC, but with a smaller capacity. In Central America, a 230 kV AC interconnection  
has been established across six countries from Guatemala to Panama.  
In the future, Central and South America will form an overall layout of three synchronized  
grids in eastern and western South America, southern South America, and Central  
America, as shown in Figure 4-30. In eastern and western South America, the 500 kV  
AC grids will be strengthened among countries, with Brazil building a 1000 kV AC power  
grid of “one west-east and two north-south” in the east and southeastern triangle-shaped  
grids, and southern lattice-shaped 1000 kV AC grids, and Peru building a C-chain 1000  
kV AC main grid. In southern South America, the 500 kV AC grids will be strengthened  
among countries, with Argentina building a “stud”-shaped 1000 kV AC grid. In Central  
America, the 230 kV grids will be strengthened among countries to form a transnational  
double-circuit 400 kV interconnection channel. In the Caribbean region, the main power  
grids among countries will be upgraded to realize the interconnection of most national  
and regional power grids. Three-circuit Argentina-Brazil 800 kV UHVDC and one-circuit  
Peru-Bolivia-Brazil 800 kV UHVDC will be built to complement hydropower, wind power  
and PV power across regions between eastern and western South America and southern  
South America. Major power grid interconnection projects in Central and South America  
are shown in Table 4-10.  
Table 4-10 Major Power Grid Interconnection Projects in Central and South America  
Voltage  
Classes  
(kV)  
Transmission  
Capacity  
(GW)  
Path  
Length  
(km)  
Investment  
(100 million U.S.  
dollars)  
S/N  
Major Projects  
1
2
3
4
1,000 kV UHVAC in Brazil  
1000  
1000  
1000  
500  
20  
20  
10  
2
9290  
3190  
1430  
1400  
205  
71  
1,000 kV UHVAC in  
Argentina  
1,000 kV UHVAC in Peru  
36  
AC Interconnection in North  
Arc Countries  
14  
156  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Figure 4-30 Overall Layout of Central and South American Power Grid Interconnections  
157  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Building Power Grid Interconnection in Oceania  
6
Oceania consists of three major power grids in Australia, New Zealand and Papua New  
Guinea, with Australia and New Zealand forming the 400/500 kV AC main power grid, and  
Australia and Papua New Guinea being interconnected by cross-sea DC power grid.  
In the future, Oceania will generally form five synchronised power grids in eastern  
Australia, western Australia, northern New Zealand, southern New Zealand and Papua  
New Guinea, as shown in Figure 4-31. A 500 kV AC synchronous power grid will be built  
in the eastern Australia. In the western Australia, the 330/275 kV power grid will be  
upgraded to a 500 kV AC power grid to support the needs of its mining and manufacturing  
industries. The 400 kV AC synchronous grid will be formed in northern New Zealand  
and the 220 kV AC grid will be upgraded to 400 kV in its southern part, supporting larger  
hydropower pooling and transmission. Papua New Guinea will complete a 400 kV AC  
synchronous power grid. Fiji, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Samoa will build relatively  
complete 132 kV power grids. The Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati and Tonga will  
strengthen local distribution grids and microgrids to promote distributed clean energy  
development. On the transcontinental level, an Australia-Indonesia DC project will be  
built to complement the electricity of Oceania and Asia. Major power grid interconnection  
projects in Oceania are shown in Table 4-11.  
Table 4-11 Major Power Grid Interconnection Projects in Oceania  
Voltage  
Classes  
(kV)  
Investment  
(100 million  
U.S. dollars)  
Path Length  
(km)  
S/N  
Major Projects  
1
2
3
4
Eastern Australia AC Interconnection Project  
Western Australia AC Interconnection Project  
Tasmania–Victoria DC Transmission Project  
North Island AC Interconnection Project  
500  
500  
660  
400  
6400  
6000  
440  
32  
28  
12.8  
6
1300  
New Zealand South Island AC Interconnection  
Project  
5
6
400  
400  
1100  
2800  
4.3  
8
Main Island of Papua New Guinea AC  
Interconnection Project  
158  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Figure 4-31 Overall Layout of Oceanian Power Grid Interconnection  
159  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Building Transcontinental Power Grid Interconnection  
7
On the basis of intra-continental interconnection, the transcontinental power grid  
interconnection will be further accelerated to optimize the global allocation of clean energy.  
Global major transcontinental power grid interconnection projects are shown in Table 4-12.  
Table 4-12 Major Transcontinental Power Grid Interconnection Projects  
Cross- Investment  
Voltage Transmission Path  
sea  
(100  
S/N Transcontinental  
Major Projects  
Classes  
(kV)  
Capacity  
(GW)  
Length  
(km)  
Length million U.S.  
(km)  
0
dollars)  
62  
Aktobe-Munich DC  
Transmission Project  
1
2
800  
800  
8
8
3500  
3900  
Kostanay-Nuremberg DC  
Transmission Project  
0
0
67  
53  
Asia-Europe  
3
Alksuma-Istanbul-  
Haskovo DC  
800  
8
2800  
Transmission Project  
Hail-Ankara DC  
Transmission Project  
4
5
800  
500  
660  
660  
8
3
4
4
2200  
1300  
700  
0
47  
12  
14  
22  
Medina-Tabuk-Cairo DC  
Transmission Project  
20  
20  
40  
Tabuk-Cairo DC  
Transmission Project  
6
7
Asia-Africa  
Addis Ababa-Riyadh DC  
Transmission Project  
2000  
Darwin-Bali-Java Three-  
8
Asia-Oceania terminal DC Transmission  
Project  
800  
8
2500  
800  
77  
Tangier-Faro DC  
Transmission Project  
9
500  
800  
800  
800  
660  
800  
660  
3
8
8
8
4
8
4
260  
200  
200  
960  
750  
30  
12  
44  
Tunisia-Rome DC  
Transmission Project  
10  
11  
12  
13  
14  
15  
1300  
1700  
1400  
1800  
2400  
1100  
Matruh-Athens-Raca DC  
Transmission Project  
104  
78  
Amar-Toulouse DC  
Europe-Africa  
Transmission Project  
Zagora-Madrid DC  
Transmission Project  
20  
Algera-Lyon-Frankfurt DC  
Transmission Project  
840  
800  
103  
50  
Zayed-Adana DC  
Transmission Project  
North America-  
Mexico City-Trujillo DC  
Central and  
16  
800  
8
5200  
0
115  
Transmission Project  
South America  
160  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
4.3.4 Universal Electricity Access  
In countries in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Central and South America, the basic  
livelihood, industrialization and economic development are affected seriously by the lack  
of access to electricity and the inability to afford it. Affordable and sustainable modern  
energy for all is an important part of GEI development and an important action to achieve  
many of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), including SDG 7.  
Recent years have seen the global population without access to electricity drop to 840  
million in 2017 from 1.2 billion in 2010, with the concerted efforts of the governments  
concerned and the international community. As the continent with the largest  
concentration of developing countries, Africa has actively promoted universal access  
to electricity, reducing the number of people without access to electricity by 20 million  
per year from 2014 to 2018, especially the total number of that to 573 million in 2017.  
Notably, remarkable results have been made in Eastern Africa, where the decline in the  
number of people without electricity access accounted for over 50% of the total in AfricaA.  
Countries such as Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania are actively developing solar power to  
make up for the shortfall in electricity supply, with the proportion of the Kenyan population  
without access to electricity dropping to 25% in 2018 from 75% in 2013B. In Asia, China  
formulated the Three-Year Action Plan for Electricity Access for All in 2013 to vigorously  
promote the construction of power grids and the development of renewable energy in  
areas without access to electricity, delivering electricity to every household by December  
2015C.  
The focus in the future is to adopt a collection of means including government subsidies,  
commercial development, financial assistance, and technological research and  
development, so as to promote power grid construction, expand the coverage of power  
supply, and develop distributed clean energy, thereby accelerating the reduction of the  
global population without access to electricity.  
●
ꢀ Expanding and extending power grids. Grid extensions, serving as the main solution  
for power supply for people without access to electricity, are applicable to providing  
power supply to cities and their suburban areas without access to electricity. For  
example, the development and upgrading of transmission and distribution networks can  
be accelerated in urban areas, village and town centers and nearby areas in countries  
with large population without access to electricity, such as Nigeria, D.R. Congo, India,  
Bangladesh and Myanmar, to expand the coverage of power supply and solve power  
supply for residents.  
●
ꢀ Developing distributed clean energy. The measure is available to remote rural and  
island areas with scattered population. For example, distributed PV power, wind power,  
biomass power and small hydropower can be built in remote rural and small island  
Source: https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-electricity.  
Source: http://www.cpnn.com.cn/cpnn_zt/zbhy/xgbd/201905/t20190520_1133976.htm.  
Source: http://power.in-en.com/html/power-2250215.shtml.  
A
B
C
161  
Towards Sustainable Development  
countries in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and Central and South America to meet the  
electricity needs of residents.  
●
ꢀ Strengthening assistance to developing countries. Governments, non-governmental  
organizations, charitable organizations and multilateral financial institutions can be  
brought into play to increase assistance to developing countries, especially the least  
developed ones, through a variety of means, such as non-reimbursable donations and  
interest-free loans. For example, support could be provided to post-war countries such as  
Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria, as well as low-income countries in sub-Saharan Africa, such  
as Uganda and Chad, to help them repair and build power infrastructure, alleviate poverty  
through electricity and increase access to electricity.  
●
ꢀ Attracting social capital participation. Efforts can be made to develop low-cost,  
high-reliability rooftop PV, biomass power, small-scale wind power and hydropower and  
other distributed clean energy technologies, explore new business models, and adopt a  
combination of subsidies, low-interest loans and interest-free loans, attracting investment  
from enterprises and social capital and increasing access to electricity.  
162  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
4.3.5 Electricity Replacement  
Electricity replacement is the main way for higher electrification and less pollution and  
fewer carbon emissions. The action aims to speed up the replacement of coal, oil, gas  
and firewood with electricity in various fields, significantly increasing the proportion of  
electricity in the final energy consumption, and forming an “electricity-centered” energy  
consumption pattern.  
Figure 4-32 shows the proportion of global electricity consumption in different fields[3].  
Non-ferrous metals, machinery and transportation equipment see an average electricity  
consumption of over 50%, with a relatively high electrification. The average electricity  
consumption of industry, highway and residents’ living account for 28%, 0.3% and 24%  
respectively, with great potential electricity replacement.  
100  
90  
80  
70  
60  
50  
40  
30  
20  
10  
0
Current global most advanced level  
Global average level  
Figure 4-32 Proportion of Global Electricity Consumption[3]  
A broad consensus on the important role of electricity replacement in reducing fossil  
fuels consumption and carbon emissions has been reached among countries around the  
world and active actions have been taken. The Chinese government issued the Guiding  
Opinions on Electricity Replacement in 2016, defining the overall goal of promoting  
electricity replacement and proposing to promote electricity replacement in various  
economic sectors according to local conditions. European countries have made transport  
electrification the focus of electricity replacement. Specifically, the Netherlands and  
Norway have decided to ban the sale of fuel vehicles in 2025. Germany and UK will do  
that in 2030, and Germany will build one million charging piles by 2025. France have  
announced a ban on the sale of fuel vehicles in 2040 and formulated policies to provide  
high subsidies and tax incentives for electric vehicles (EVs).  
163  
Towards Sustainable Development  
In the future, the focus will be on accelerating the electricity replacement in the industrial  
sector, the transport sector, business and residents’ living sector, strengthening  
technological research and development, and improving economic competitiveness, so  
as to make fossil fuels return to its original attribute as raw material.  
Industrial Sector  
1
●
ꢀ Promoting industrial electrification. As for high energy-consuming industries such  
as cement, iron and steel and non-ferrous metals, the use of technologies and equipment  
including electric steelmaking, electric rotary cement kiln and electric induction furnace  
should be promoted. As for various industries requiring hot water and steam for their  
production processes, regenerative and direct-thermal electric boilers should be used to  
replace coal-fired boilers. As for industries such as metal processing, casting, ceramics,  
rock wool and microcrystalline glass, the use of electric kiln furnaces should be promoted.  
●
ꢀ Developing the electric raw material industry. The development of hydrogen  
production from electrolyzed water should be accelerated to gradually replace hydrogen  
production from fossil fuels. By 2050, the proportion of electrohydrogen production will  
reach 50%-60%, becoming the mainstream hydrogen production method[3]. Various fuel  
and raw material industries such as electrosynthesis of methane, methanol, gasoline,  
diesel, ethylene and propylene should be vigorously developed. The solar distillation,  
electrodialysis and other technologies should be adopted to develop clean electricity  
desalination industry, so as to solve water resources problems.  
Transport Sector  
2
●
ꢀ Accelerating the development of EVs and the construction of supporting facilities.  
Active measures should be taken on the research and development on new technologies  
such as batteries. The use of electrified vehicles such as EVs, motorcycles and bicycles  
should be promoted to replace traditional fuel vehicles. Building electric vehicle charging  
(swapping) facilities should be accelerated in highways, urban centers and residential  
areas, based on urban and regional planning.  
●
ꢀ Developing electrified railways and port electricity. In the field of urban and inter-city  
transport, electrified railways such as metros, light rails and high-speed railways should  
be developed, and steam engines and diesel locomotives should be phased out. It should  
develop port electricity technology equipment, carry out electrification of ships and build  
port electricity infrastructure.  
●
ꢀ Developing hydrogen-powered vehicles. Hydrogen fuel cell and other hydrogen  
energy technology research should be carried out to develop hydrogen fuel cell vehicles  
in the field of high-load, long-endurance large buses and trucks. By 2050, the penetration  
rate of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles will exceed 15%[3].  
164  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Business and Residents’ Living Sector  
3
●
ꢀ Promoting electric cookers. The “coal-to-electricity and gas-to-electricity” actions  
should be carried out to promote the use of electric cookers, such as induction cookers,  
microwave ovens, electric rice cookers and electric ovens, and to replace scattered  
burning coal and gas stoves. In Africa, South Asia, and some rural areas in Asia, and  
Central and South America, electric cookers should be promoted to reduce the burning of  
firewood, straw and garbage.  
●
ꢀ Developing electric heating. Electric equipment such as heat-storage electric boilers,  
electric heaters, air conditioners and electrothermal membranes should be promoted to  
replace coal-fired boilers, gas-fired boilers, scattered burning coal and primary biomass  
energy for heating. Ground source heat pump technology should be developed to meet  
new and decentralized heating demand by taking advantage of its high energy efficiency,  
low cost and zero emissions.  
●
ꢀ Building electrified smart families. The electrification of household energy use should  
be promoted through building electrified houses integrating rooftop PVs, energy storage,  
electric vehicles, electric cookers and electric heating. Smart home technologies, such as  
home energy management systems, should be developed to improve the efficiency and  
intelligence of household energy use.  
165  
Towards Sustainable Development  
4.3.6 Smart Grid  
The smart grid is the foundation of GEI. This action aims to accelerate the deployment  
of various types of intelligent technologies and equipment in the global power system to  
meet the future needs for large-scale grid integration and consumption of clean energy  
and for flexible access and interactive services for various types of electric equipment,  
realizing the synergistic development, multi-energy complement and efficient utilization of  
power, grid, load and storage.  
In recent years, many countries around the world have actively accelerated the  
development of smart grids by taking it as an important direction for future power grid  
development. China has vigorously promoted its smart grids, with more than 600 million  
smart meters installed and comprehensive automatic collection of electricity consumption  
data. It has built a smart IOV platform with the world’s widest coverage and highest level  
of technology, with a cumulative total of 1.22 million public and private charging piles  
connected. Moreover, it has promoted the construction of comprehensive smart grid  
demonstration projects in more than 10 cities, including Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin and  
Guangzhou. In 2018, the total investment in the global smart grid sector increased by  
10% year on year, and the smart grid market is expected to grow at an average annual  
growth rate of more than 20% over the next five years, with the total market expected to  
reach 100 billion US dollars in 2025[4].  
In the future, the focus will be on promoting the deep integration of advanced  
communication technology, information technology, control technology and energy  
and electricity technology, and improving the intelligence level of power generation,  
transmission, distribution and consumption, so as to provide support and guarantee for  
GEI.  
Smart Electric Power Generation  
1
●
ꢀ Smart site selection for power stations. High-accuracy models based on big data  
such as climate and geography should be established first, and then the optimal siting  
solutions for solar power plants and wind farms can be obtained by means of artificial  
intelligence analysis.  
●
ꢀ Precise power prediction. A global wind power and solar power prediction system  
should be established to improve the current power prediction accuracy of renewable  
energy to more than 95%.  
●
ꢀ Automatic equipment inspection. Technologies and equipment such as robot  
inspection, big data mining, and decentralized control systems will be utilized to  
automatically monitor the state of power plant equipment and identify and predict faults,  
thereby improving unit operating efficiency and safety.  
166  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Smart Electric Power Transmission  
2
●
ꢀ Automatic smart dispatching. Traditional automatic control technology will be  
combined with big data, artificial intelligence and other information communication  
technology to upgrade dispatching automation system for the power grids and realize  
trend prediction, online dispatching decision making and multi-level automatic dispatching  
and cooperation, thereby creating more power, grid, load and storage coordination and  
control in power systems with high penetration of clean energy.  
●
ꢀ Smart inspection of power transmission lines. Technologies such as Internet of  
Things (IoT) communication, fully autonomous navigation drone inspection, inspection  
image target detection and smart fault identification should be integrated to establish an  
intelligent inspection system for transmission lines, in a bid to achieve three-dimensional  
sensing, smart diagnosis and dynamic protection of overall performance of the  
transmission system and to improve its safe operation.  
Smart Electric Power Distribution  
3
●
ꢀ Active power distribution network. Efforts should be made to optimize the distribution  
network structure, enhance the capabilities of national distribution network in monitoring  
and smart control, construct active distribution network with adaptive and self-healing  
capacity to allow for flexible accommodation of distributed clean energy, microgrids,  
electric vehicles and various electrical devices and enhance the quality of electricity.  
●
ꢀ Multi-station integration. A multi-station system integrating power distribution  
substation, EV charging station, communication base station and data center should be  
built to realize the integration of energy flow, traffic flow, information flow and value flow,  
and promote the intensive construction of urban infrastructure.  
Smart Electric Power Consumption  
4
●
ꢀ Smart homes and buildings. Efforts should be made to promote extensive installation  
of smart meters and the building of smart homes and smart cities, to achieve two-way  
interaction between the consumers and the grids. By 2030, over 60% of the countries  
worldwide will implement the Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) Program, which  
covers about 70% of the world population.  
●
ꢀ EVs and charging networks. The popularization of EVs and the development of  
charging networks should be accelerated to sustain a significant increase in car park  
of EVs. By 2030, the number of charging piles worldwide will reach 80-120 times that of  
2015[5]. Innovation in business models and market mechanisms should be promoted to  
pursue higher degrees of power marketization to increase system flexibility and power  
supply reliability.  
167  
Towards Sustainable Development  
4.3.7 Energy Efficiency Enhancement  
Energy efficiency enhancement is an important measure for total energy usage control  
and carbon emission mitigation, as well as an important means to save energy investment  
and reduce overall social costs. This action aims to reduce energy intensity and establish  
an efficient and sustainable approach to energy development, by relying on technological  
advances, digitalization of energy sources and shifts in consumption patterns.  
Thanks to active actions to improve energy efficiency among countries concerned in  
recent years, global energy intensity (i.e., primary energy consumption per unit of GDP)  
has been on a downward trend, with improvement rates as shown in Figure 4-33. In 2005,  
the US enacted the National Energy Policy Act to encourage energy efficiency measures  
by energy companies across the countryA. In 2012, the EU established the Energy  
Efficiency Directive, which plans to reduce EU energy consumption by 20% in 2020  
compared to 2017B.In 2018, the European Parliament approved the EU’s binding target of  
a 32.5% enhancement in energy efficiency by 2030C. During the G20 Summit in Hangzhou  
in 2016, China led the development of G20 Energy Efficiency Leading Programme to  
promote greater cooperation among countries in the field of energy efficiency. In 2018,  
the World Bank signed an agreement with the Indian Government to provide funding for  
the “India Energy Efficiency Enhancement Project” to promote energy conservation and  
emission reduction in India’s residential and public sectors, which is expected to save 10  
GW of installed power generation investment in IndiaD.  
In the future, the focus will be on promoting new energy-saving technologies and  
equipment, improving energy efficiency standards, advocating energy-saving concepts,  
and accelerating energy efficiency improvement, based on the whole process of energy  
production, allocation and consumption.  
3
2
1
0
2000-2009 2010-2014 2015  
2016  
2017  
2018  
Year  
Figure 4-33 Global Energy Intensity Reduction Rate from 2000 to 2018[6]  
Source: https://www.circleofblue.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/CRS-Summary-of-Energy-Policy-  
Act-of-2005.pdf.  
A
B
Source: The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 2012 Energy Efficiency  
Directive. European Commission, October 25, 2012. Accessed on September 12, 2018.  
Source: https://www.ne21.com/news/show-109679.html.  
C
D
Source: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/08/28/agreement-scale-up-indias-  
energy-efficiency-program.  
168  
4
GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Energy Production  
1
●
ꢀ Improving the efficiency of clean energy generation. New technologies should be  
developed to improve the efficiency of power generation with wind energy, solar energy  
and other clean energy. By 2030, the capacity of offshore wind turbines will be close to 20  
MW. The research should be conducted on perovskite solar cell technology to promote  
the PV conversion efficiency exceeding 45%.  
●
ꢀ Improving coal use efficiency. Low-parameter small units should be replaced with  
high-parameter large units to promote intensive coal use. By 2030, they shall reduce the  
coal consumption for unit power generation by 5%-10%, and increase the proportion of  
coal for power generation from 55% in 2015 to 70% or above, while controlling the total  
consumption of coal, and significantly reducing the low-efficiency coal combustion.  
●
ꢀ Accelerating the application of energy-saving technologies and equipment.  
Efficient power generation technologies such as integrated gasification combined  
cycle (IGCC) system should be promoted. It should actively develop energy-saving  
technologies with cogeneration and central heating as the core in countries and regions  
with larger heat loads.  
●
ꢀ Universal access to modern energy. Modern biomass and garbage power stations  
should be vigorously built to improve energy efficiency in areas such as Africa, where  
large amounts of firewood are burned.  
Energy Allocation  
2
●
ꢀ Promoting the application of advanced power transmission technologies. Advanced  
power transmission technologies such as UHV and VSC-HVDC should be promoted  
worldwide to reduce transmission loss. By 2030, the total length of UHV AC and UHV  
DC lines will be expanded to over 100 thousand km2, and the average loss rate of global  
power grids will be reduced to below 6%, compared with that of 8.2% in 2015.  
●
ꢀ Building an efficient and smart power distribution network. It should optimize the  
structure and operation mode of distribution networks, and make use of the advanced  
technology and equipment of the smart power distribution network, in an effort to  
accelerate the digital and smart development of the power distribution network, and  
reduce its loss.  
169  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Energy Consumption  
3
●
ꢀ Promoting energy-saving technology in industrial production. Efforts should be  
made in the following areas: upgrading technologies by promoting the use of high-efficient  
terminals energy-saving electric motors and energy-saving smart terminal for wind turbine  
and water pump; optimizing the production process by using software-defined flexible  
production lines to improve the energy efficiency in the manufacturing sector; promoting  
energy efficiency management system for industrial production and strengthening the  
refined management of energy systems; strengthening energy consumption certification  
and energy efficiency labeling for products and equipment; promoting the application  
of the circular economy model to achieve the industrial ecological chain of product  
manufacturing, energy conversion, waste disposal and recycling.  
●
ꢀ Enhancing energy efficiency in transport and building sectors. Efforts should be  
made in the following areas: raising vehicle fuel standards to reduce oil consumption;  
developing green logistics to increase the proportion of rail and water transport; promoting  
green travel and vigorously developing car-sharing and public transport; promoting  
energy-saving technologies and eliminating energy-intensive materials and equipment;  
promoting the use of energy-efficient lighting, air conditioners and other new products.  
170  
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GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
4.3.8 Driving Innovation  
Innovation is the fundamental driving force to the development of GEI and sustainable  
development. Building GEI is a brand-new huge system project that requires innovative  
breakthroughs in related technology and equipment, business model, investment and  
financing system as soon as possible, so as to provide technical and financial guarantee  
for the smooth implementation of the project.  
This action should focus on technological innovation and financial innovation. In terms  
of technological innovation, it should focus on technologies such as smart grids, UHV,  
clean energy, energy storage, and power grids operation and control to increase R&D  
and innovation, as shown in Figure 4-34. In terms of financial innovation, the focus  
should be on adopting new business and investment and financing models. An efficient  
investment and financing system should be built to enable parties involved in building GEI  
to achieve mutual benefit and win-win results.  
Interconnected power grid  
operation control  
Power flow  
Information flow  
Domain  
Plan and  
simulation  
analysis of  
interconnected  
power grid  
Dispatching and  
transaction of  
interconnected  
power grid  
Safety  
control and  
protection of  
interconnected  
power grid  
Cross-border/  
transcontinental  
transmission system  
Smart grid (Country A)  
Smart grid (Country B)  
UHV  
transmission  
UHV  
transmission  
Power  
utilization  
Power  
utilization  
Internet of  
things for power  
Internet of  
things for  
power  
VSC-HVDC and  
DC power grid  
Smart power  
transmission  
Smart power  
distribution  
Smart power  
distribution  
Smart power  
transmission  
New-type power  
transmission  
Clean energy  
connecting  
to grid and  
operation  
control  
Clean energy  
Clean energy  
power  
generation  
equipment  
and system  
Clean energy  
power  
generation  
equipment  
and system  
connecting  
to grid and  
operation  
control  
Large-scale energy  
Large-scale  
energy storage  
storage  
Clean energy (Base A)  
Clean energy (Base B)  
Figure 4-34 Key Technology Innovation of GEI  
171  
Towards Sustainable Development  
Technical Innovation in Technologies  
1
●
ꢀ Smart grid technology. Smart technologies covering power generation, transmission,  
distribution, consumption, dispatching and operation should be developed to ensure safe,  
reliable, economical and efficient operation of power grids. The in-depth integration of  
cloud computing, big data, IoT, mobile Internet, artificial intelligence, blockchain technology  
and electric power technology should be promoted to achieve multi-energy complement  
and intelligent interaction, thereby meeting the various energy needs of users.  
●
ꢀ UHV technology. Efforts should be made in the following areas: developing UHV DC  
( 1100kV and above) transmission technology and to accelerate equipment development  
and engineering application; developing 800 kV DC cable system to solve the bottleneck  
of large-capacity cross-sea interconnection; promoting the manufacturing and application  
of core UHV equipment for use in extreme cold (-60℃), extreme hot (60℃) or high  
altitude (4000 meters) environments; developing technologies of 800 kV multi-terminal  
VSC-UHVDC, VSC-UHV and EHV DC circuit breaker, controllable series compensation,  
controllable shunt reactors, and other flexible AC transmission technologies.  
●
ꢀ Clean energy generation and grid-connected technologies. Efforts should be made  
in the following areas: developing super-large wind turbines for their better cold-resistant  
characteristics to meet the needs of wind power development in the Arctic Circle; doing  
research on technologies such as solar receiving structures, panel laying and the design  
and control of ultra-large-scale photothermal power generation mirror field, so as to improve  
the efficiency of solar energy resource utilization; developing energy supply system for  
miniaturized modular ocean energy; doing research on key technologies for grid-connected  
clean energy, such as complementary optimized operation system integrating water, wind  
and photovoltaic generation and large-capacity centralized virtual synchronous machines.  
●
ꢀ Large capacity energy storage technology. Efforts should be made to increase the  
energy density of new lead-acid batteries, such as lithium-ion batteries, all-vanadium  
liquid flow batteries and lead-carbon batteries, and accelerate the commercial application  
of electrochemical energy storage technology, so that by 2030 electrochemical energy  
storage systems will be available for 100 MW/100 MWh engineering applications.  
Superconducting magnetic energy storage and supercapacitors with large capacity, long  
life, low cost and high safety should be developed so that electromagnetic energy storage  
systems will be ready for 100 MW commercial applications by 2030. Moreover, it should  
undertake research and application on molten salt thermal energy storage technology.  
●
ꢀ Operation and control technology of power grid. New technologies such as the  
safe and stable operation mechanism and characteristic analysis, operational control  
and system protection of large-scale hybrid AC/DC power grids should be developed to  
improve the stability, adaptability and reliability of large power grids. Smart power system  
systems for adequacy analysis, optimization and decision support should be developed  
to achieve online assessment and decision support of GEI adequacy. The communication  
architecture for wide-area adaptive control featuring “distributed autonomy and centralized  
coordination” should be established, and wide-area adaptive system protection devices  
for large-scale power systems should be developed.  
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GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
Financial Innovation  
2
●
ꢀ Building a win-win business model. Efforts should be made in the following three  
aspects. Firstly, governments, energy enterprises, investment institutions and other  
participants should be guided to participate in the development of GEI through different  
forms in accordance with market rules, so as to share the benefits and risks. Secondly, it  
should design fair methods to distribute profits among various stakeholders. An interest  
sharing mechanism should be established through many forms such as stock equity and  
creditors’ rights, thereby ensuring interconnected countries to duly receive the benefits  
of interconnection. Thirdly, it should give full play to pilot projects, promote financial  
innovation through pilot projects and form typical investment and financing business  
models.  
●
ꢀ Establishing a multilevel investment and financing system. Efforts should be made  
in the following three aspects. Firstly, it should introduce more social capital into the  
industry of GEI with institutional advantages in funding, financial leasing, and security,  
and guide more social capital to invest in the GEI industry. Secondly, it should support the  
GEI projects financing through bank loans, bond issue, equity trade, crowd funding, PPP,  
BOT and BOOT. Thirdly, it should promote international cooperation in policy negotiation  
to optimize the investment environment in aspects of commercial, legal, regulatory  
and fiscal, and to strengthen safeguard for investors as well as mitigate international  
investment barriers.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
4.3.9 Capacity Building  
GEI development necessitates global efforts and puts forward higher requirements for  
research capacities and building capacity in each country. Developing countries face  
challenges in building GEI due to their constraints in economic strength, infrastructure  
and human resources in energy development and utilization. This action aims to harness  
the power of the international community to help developing countries accelerate the  
enhancement of their development capacities, scientific and technological capabilities  
and research capabilities through international assistance and cooperation and  
exchanges.  
●
ꢀ Enhancing development capacity. It should establish GEI capacity training and  
development systems and improve the GEI capacity assistance mechanism, to enhance  
the technologies and managerial expertise of developing countries in clean energy  
development, power grid construction and operation, and improve their capacity for  
implement GEI projects, through personnel training, international exchange, cooperative  
R&D and technology transfer. In addition, it should promote the channels for developing  
countries to raise domestic and foreign funds by providing international support, so as to  
ensure that they have the economic strength for GEI projects.  
●
ꢀ Improving scientific and technological strength. Action should be taken to break  
through key technologies: enhance the simulation and analysis capability for globally  
interconnected power networks by developing the operation simulation platform of GEI;  
enhance capability in key technology R&D by establishing research and test bases for  
key technologies and equipment of GEI and conducting testing and researches on grid  
operation and integration in extreme weather conditions; enhance the forecast, operation  
control and dispatching capability of GEI by building global level numerical weather  
forecast center and joint power forecasting center. Moreover, it should build a sound,  
multilevel and cross-disciplinary talent cultivation system. The specific actions may  
include: set up professional courses and training projects on GEI related majors; set up  
the international scholarship for GEI to cultivate a large number of high-level technical  
professionals and project management talents.  
●
ꢀ Enhancing research capacity. Action should be taken to set up professional think  
tanks of GEI to lead important theoretical and strategic research directions for energy  
transition and infrastructure interconnection, and regularly publish research reports of GEI,  
so as to promote continuous support capability for GEI. It also should be taken to build  
energy research platform, to support joint researches on strategic and forward looking  
topics with organization, enterprises, universities, research institutions from different  
countries; release research achievements and share research results.  
4.3.10 Policy Support  
Building GEI requires sound policy support. This action aims to propel the formulation  
of government policies, plans and measures to promote the development of GEI, and to  
bring into play the guiding and coordinating role of international organizations, thereby  
enhancing policy compatibility and synergy among countries.  
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GEI Action on the 2030 Agenda  
●
ꢀ Policy on clean development. Efforts can be made in three aspects. The first one  
is to urge governments to formulate policies and laws and regulations on clean energy  
development, with clear development goals, road maps and specific measures. The  
second one is to set up special funds and provide financial subsidies and tax incentives  
to support the development of clean energy industries. The third one is to encourage  
the elimination of fossil fuel subsidies and the introduction of carbon taxes or carbon  
emissions trading in all countries, thereby establishing a global electricity-carbon market.  
●
ꢀ Policy on universal access to electricity. Efforts can be made in three aspects.  
The first one is to formulate development goals, road maps and specific measures to  
promote universal access to electricity in countries with large population without access  
to electricity, such as Africa, South Asia, and Central and South America. The second one  
is to introduce subsidy mechanisms and incentive policies to attract enterprises and social  
capital to invest distributed clean energy and power grid projects. The third one is to mobilize  
developed countries to formulate energy assistance policies and increase support to the least  
developed countries in addressing the problem of people without access to electricity.  
●
ꢀ Policy for power grid interconnection. Efforts can be made to encourage governments  
to formulate policies and plans to promote transnational interconnection, strengthen policy  
coordination among countries in cross-border electricity transaction, taxation and investment  
and financing, and remove policy barriers, so as to create a policy environment that  
encourages the development of power grid connectivity and regional electricity markets.  
●
ꢀ Policy on electricity replacement. Efforts can be made in three aspects. The first  
one is to encourage governments to formulate development goals, road maps and  
specific measures for electrification in sectors involving industry, transport and residents’  
living. The second one is to roll out relevant policies to promote electricity replacement  
technologies, industries and infrastructure, increase the publicity of electricity replacement  
and raise social attention and acceptance. The third one is to reduce the purchase cost of  
EVs, electric cookers and electric heating equipment, and accelerate the development of  
relevant industries through subsidies and tax incentives.  
●
ꢀ Policy on smart grid. Governments of all countries should be motivated to develop  
targets, road maps and concrete measures for the development of smart grids. They should  
roll out relevant policies and regulations and industrial standards and formulate common  
market rules and operating mechanisms, in a bid to remove legal and policy obstacles for  
such new industries and forms of business as shared EVs, driverless vehicles, energy big data  
and multi-station integration, thereby pursuing better and faster development of smart grids.  
●
ꢀ Policy on energy efficiency. Efforts can be made in four aspects. The first one is  
to encourage governments of all countries to develop policies that promote energy  
efficiency. The second one is to improve standards for energy efficiency of products and  
equipment and vehicle fuels, and strengthen energy consumption certification and energy  
efficiency labeling. The third one is to improve the fund support mechanism, promote research  
and development of new clean energy technologies and equipment, and promote the use of  
efficient electric devices. The fourth one is to strengthen publicity, and raise public awareness  
of energy conservation, so as to propel the building of a resource-conserving society.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
References  
[1] IRENA. Statistics on Installed Clean Energy Capacity 2020 [R]. 2020.  
[2] Zhang Xin. Study on Risk Evaluation System of Cross-border Power Grid Investment  
for Global Energy Interconnection [D]. Master’s Thesis of North China Electric Power  
University. 2017.  
[3] GEIDCO. Research Report on Global Energy Interconnection for Addressing Climate  
Change [M]. Beijing: China Electric Power Press. 2019.  
[4] The International Energy Agency. World Energy Investment 2019[R]. 2019.  
[5] The International Energy Agency. Global EV Outlook 2016 [R]. 2016.  
[6] The International Energy Agency. Energy Efficiency 2019 [R]. 2019.  
176  
Mechanisms of  
5
GEI Cooperation  
Towards Sustainable Development  
GEI development is a systematic project covering multiple fields—including  
energy, economy, and society—and involving various parties including the  
demand side, investors, and service providers. Therefore, efficient cooperation  
mechanisms are needed to encourage governments, businesses, and society  
to step up communication and consultation and to take concerted action in  
the planning, development, operation, and technical standards of GEI. AThis  
chapter begins with a brief analysis of the main mechanisms for energy  
cooperation under the current structure of world energy, and points to the  
need to establish a new mechanism adaptive to GEI development in an era  
when clean energy is developing rapidly to gradually achieve dominance. On  
this basis, the chapter focuses on each link of GEI development to propose  
six cooperation mechanisms—global power grid planning, transnational  
project construction, global electricity trade, interconnected power grid  
coordination, technical standards collaboration, and energy development  
assistance—as well as expounding upon the overall ideas and main content  
of each mechanism. These mechanisms and rules are essential; they will play  
a vital role ensuring support for GEI development and the achievement of  
sustainable development goals.  
5.1 Major Mechanisms for International Energy Cooperation  
Energy is an important strategic resource. No country in the world can resolve energy  
problems independently. International energy cooperation has thus become an  
important means for countries to ensure their own energy security and safeguard their  
core interests. Since the 1960s, the international community has gradually established  
a system of energy cooperation, dominated by fossil fuels. The Organization of the  
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established in 1960 to coordinate and  
unify oil production policies among its member countries, guaranteeing them a stable  
income. In 1974, the International Energy Agency (IEA) was established within the  
framework of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD);  
thus was the governance structure formed with a union of oil consuming countries and  
organization of oil exporting countries. In 1991, the International Energy Forum (IEF) was  
Governments mainly include national governments, public institutions, inter-governmental international  
organizations and the United Nations; enterprises mainly include power generation companies, power  
grid companies, equipment manufacturers, financial institutions, service companies and other private  
enterprises; society mainly includes non-governmental organizations, universities, think tanks and  
other research institutions.  
A
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Mechanisms of GEI Cooperation  
established, which improved communication between energy producers and consumers  
to a certain extent. Then, in 1994, the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) was established in  
line with the principles of the European Energy Charter, its aim to protect transnational  
energy investments and resolve disputes in international energy trade and transport via  
a credible legal framework. Since the 1990s, countries around the world have gradually  
come to place great importance on climate and environmental governance and green,  
low-carbon energy transition. As a result, a number of mechanisms for international  
energy cooperation have been established to promote the mitigation of carbon emissions  
and the development and usage of clean energy. These include the United Nations  
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Clean Energy Ministerial  
(CEM) Conference, and the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)[1]. The major  
mechanisms for international energy cooperation are given in Table 5-1.  
Table 5-1 Major Mechanisms for Intergovernmental Energy Cooperation  
Cooperation  
Established  
Description  
Mechanism  
OPEC  
IEA  
1960  
1974  
1991  
1994  
1994  
2009  
2009  
Principal Governing Body Representing Energy Suppliers  
Principal Governing Body Representing Energy Consumers  
Promotes exchange between energy suppliers and consumers  
Protects transnational energy investment, trade, and transport  
Controls global carbon emissions, including in the energy sector  
Promotes the global transition to a clean energy economy  
Promotes the extensive and sustainable use of renewable energy  
IEF  
ECT  
UNFCCC  
CEM  
IRENA  
The current structure of energy cooperation is based on fossil fuels. In the context of  
the rapid clean development, electrification, and energy networking, a new energy  
cooperation mechanism is needed to meet the urgent needs of the energy transition and  
accelerate GEI development. Specifically:  
●
ꢀ In terms of the scale of trade, cross-border electricity trade exhibits a small  
volume and weak influence in the overall system of global energy trade. This system  
is currently dominated by oil and gas. In 2017, the global oil trade reached 3.32 billion  
tonnes, accounting for 72% of globally consumed oil. The natural gas trade reached 1.1  
trillion m3, accounting for 31% of global natural gas consumption [2]. In contrast, global  
cross-border electricity trade only reaches 720TWh, accounting for less than 4% of global  
electricity consumption, as shown in Figure 5-1.A  
Source: IEA Data and Statistics.  
A
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Proportion of global oil trade  
in total consumption  
80%  
60%  
40%  
20%  
0%  
Proportion of global electricity  
trade in total consumption  
Proportion of global natural gas  
trade in total consumption  
Figure 5-1 Global Trade Volume of Oil, Natural Gas, and Electric Power as  
Percentages of their Consumption  
●
ꢀ In terms of the progression of projects—from planning to implementation—those  
for cross-border power transmission networking tend take a long time to go into  
effect and progress is slow. They are often subject to delay from such factors as channel  
construction, inter-regional agreements, and technical support. With an extended planning-  
to-implementation period, the overall development of cross-border power trade is dampened.  
For example, electricity cooperation in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) has been  
ongoing for over 20 years, and even now, some projects are still progressing slowly [3][4]  
.
Column 5-1 Power Interconnection Progress between China and  
GMS Countries [3]  
At present, overall connectivity between China and GMS countries is weak, with  
low voltage levels and a weak power transmission capacity. Other than the 500-  
kV Dapein River-Daying River line running between China and Myanmar, all other  
connections are at 220 or 110kV. Since 2011, only one 110-kV power grid project  
has been operationalized—that between Menglong in China and Jingyang in  
Myanmar, while extensive, large-scale high voltage projects have remained in  
the stages of proposal, discussion, or memorandum of understanding (MoU) for  
extended periods, as is explained Table 5-2.  
Table 5-2 Progress of Power Interconnection Projects between China and GMS Countries  
Projects  
Progress  
In 2013, the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) signed a  
memorandum of understanding (MoU) to buy electricity from China Southern  
Power Grid (CSG); in November 2016, China, Laos, and Thailand held  
their first multilateral technical talks on the trilateral interconnection project,  
which determined project capacity at 1 GW in the initial stage and a power  
grid length of 380km—starting in southwest Yunnan and ending at the Lao-  
Thai border. In March 2017, a second meeting between China, Laos, and  
Thailand was held in Bangkok, where the EGAT proposed to postpone the  
power transmission project until 2026. As of the end of 2018, the China-Laos-  
Thailand power interconnection working group had yet to be established.  
China-Laos-  
Thailand  
Interconnection  
Project  
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Mechanisms of GEI Cooperation  
Continued  
Projects  
Progress  
In November 2016, CSG submitted a proposal to the Ministry of Electricity  
and Energy of Myanmar for a 500-kV interconnection project between  
China and Myanmar. Starting from northwest Yunnan and reaching to  
Rangoon, the 3-GW project is to have a 1000-km transmission length.  
In October 2017, China Southern Power Grid established the project’s  
Chinese working group in Naypyidaw. At present, each side has made  
initial progress in negotiations, the current area of disagreement being the  
pricing of electricity.  
China-Myanmar  
Interconnection  
Project  
In August 2016, CSG and the Vietnam Electricity (EVN) established initial  
intent to build a new interconnection project between China and Vietnam,  
planning to transmit power to Ho Chi Minh City via a 500-kV line. Recently,  
the project has not made any significant progress.  
China-Vietnam  
Interconnection  
Project  
In Kunming, August 2017, the Memorandum of Understanding on China-  
Laos UHV Power Transmission Project to Vietnam through Laos was  
signed by CSG, Électricité du Laos (EDL), Laos Pensatarui Group, and  
the joint venture of Hanoi-Vientiane Electricity. These four parties from  
three countries have preliminarily agreed to send 5 to 6GW of electricity to  
Vietnam via Laos from 2021 to 2025. Recently, the project has not made  
any significant progress.  
China-Laos-  
Vietnam  
Interconnection  
Project  
●
ꢀ In terms of level of development, the cross-border electric power trade is  
unbalanced, with enormous regional differences. At present, Europe’s cross-border  
electricity trade is relatively mature, while other regions’ cross-border electricity trade is  
primarily driven by complementarity in the supply and demand of energy resources, and  
most transactions are one-way, without mutual bilateral interactions or multilateral trade.  
For example, countries such as Uruguay in South America, Mozambique in Africa, and  
Myanmar in Asia have built large-scale hydropower stations and have an urgent need to  
expand their market and export electricity to neighboring countries[5].  
●
ꢀ In terms of building a trade market, the mechanisms for cross-border power trade  
are flawed, the market development immature. In addition to the European market,  
most other players involved in cross-border trade are large power enterprises from  
various countries; hence the structure is rather singular, the mode of trade dominated by  
medium-and long-term bilateral contracts. When it comes to market operations, there is a  
lack of complete mechanisms for balance, pricing, or risk prevention, as well as operating  
regulations and cross-border trading platforms. Even the more mature European market  
is still confronted with a series of problems such as insufficient investment, delayed  
construction, and inflexible market mechanisms for transnational transmission channels  
that cannot meet the demands of the growing proportion of clean energy in large-scale  
transaction and consumption.  
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5.2 Mechanisms of GEI Cooperation  
In the future, the world will gradually move towards a GEI energy structure featuring clean  
energy, electricity generation, and interconnection. Therefore, the existing mechanisms for  
international energy cooperation need to be adapted to this trend. Establishing innovative  
mechanisms to accommodate GEI development will significantly accelerate the global  
transition to clean, low-carbon energy and promote realization of the 2030 Agenda.  
The system of mechanisms for GEI cooperation mainly consists of six aspects: global  
energy planning, transnational project construction, integrated electricity-carbon trade,  
power interconnection coordination, collaboration in technical standards, and energy  
development assistance. This is illustrated in Figure 5-2.  
Mechanism for  
Global Energy  
Planning  
Mechanism for  
Mechanism for  
Transnational  
Integrated  
Project  
Electricity-Carbon  
Construction  
Trade  
Six Cooperation  
Mechanisms  
Mechanism for  
Mechanism for  
Energy Development  
Assistance  
Power  
Interconnection  
Coordination  
Mechanism for  
Collaboration  
in Technical  
Standards  
Figure 5-2 Mechanisms for GEI Development Cooperation  
182  
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Mechanisms of GEI Cooperation  
5.2.1 Global Energy Planning  
GEI employs the principle of combined top-level global design and independent national  
planning; it takes global energy resources and demand into overall consideration; and it  
coordinates planning among global, regional, and national power systems.  
●
ꢀ At the global and regional levels, efforts should be made to research planning processes  
and methods for universal power; cost-benefit analysis models will be established for projects  
such as clean energy development and transnational interconnection.  
●
ꢀ With full communication and data sharing among countries, efforts need to be stepped  
up for the organization and execution of unified global/regional planning; transnational  
interconnection schemes should be proposed.  
●
ꢀ A rolling revision mechanism needs to be established for updating plans and the  
execution thereof in accordance with various countries’ economic and social development,  
thereby promoting the coordinated development of energy, climate, and environment.  
●
ꢀ Efforts should be made to advance coordination and synergy between global/regional  
planning and national planning; a global project library for transnational interconnection  
should be established; and construction plans need to be clearly defined.  
5.2.2 Transnational Project Construction  
Mechanisms for cooperation on global clean energy development and transnational  
interconnection projects need to be structured by interconnection planning and based on  
the basic principles of openness, transparency, fairness and equity, joint contribution and  
shared benefits should be established to promote project execution.  
●
ꢀ Efforts should be made to establish a global platform for the research and design of  
clean energy development and transnational interconnection projects; relevant parties  
including various national governments, enterprises, and institutions will need to carry out  
preliminary work such as project feasibility studies.  
●
ꢀ Business models appropriate to project characteristics need to be established—  
including capacity allocation and cost allocation models—in a bid to attract global  
investors while sharing construction costs fairly and project benefits reasonably.  
●
ꢀ A GEI platform for development and cooperation should be established to encourage  
alignment between the needs of governments, enterprises, and financial institutions, to  
integrate resources and raise funds, and to promote the implementation of cross-border  
projects.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
●
ꢀ Formulated policies and regulations should aim to ensure cross-border project  
construction and strengthen policy coordination among countries in project planning,  
initial stages, construction, and operation, and to eliminate policy obstacles that arise  
in cross-border power transmission and the use of foreign capital, creating a favorable  
policy environment.  
Column 5-2 Construction of Europe’s BritNed Cross-border  
Transmission Line [5]  
The BritNed project connects the Isle of Grain in Kent (Great Britain) and  
Maasvlakte (the Netherlands) via 450 kV HVDC cabling. The line is 260 km long  
with a maximum transmission capacity of 1 GW. The project was officially launched  
in May 2007 and became operational in April 2011. It is now an integral component  
of the European supergrid project, playing an important role in the diversification of  
electricity supply for Great Britain and the Netherlands, and improving the overall  
stability of northwestern Europe’s power grid.  
Figure 5-3 Schematic Diagram of BritNed Submarine Transmission Line  
184  
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Mechanisms of GEI Cooperation  
5.2.3 Integrated Electricity-Carbon Trade  
To give full play to the advantages of GEI platforms and data, a joint trading platform for  
electric power and carbon emission rights should be established that can realize the  
optimal allocation of global energy and resources by means of the market, promoting the  
development of clean electric power and accelerating the mitigation of carbon emissions.  
A schematic diagram of the global integrated electricity-carbon trading platform is shown  
in Figure 5-4.  
Electricity Trading  
Electricity  
Market  
Reduce carbon emissions  
GEI Electricity-  
Carbon Integrated  
Trading Platform  
Accelerate clean and  
low-carbon transition  
of energy system  
Electricity-Carbon  
Integrated Market  
Promote optimal and  
large-scale allocation  
of energy resources  
Carbon Market  
CO2  
Carbon Trading  
Figure 5-4 Global Integrated Electricity-Carbon Trading Platform  
●
ꢀ A top-level design of rules for trading power and carbon should be completed to  
promote the collaborative integration of spot and derivative transactions in the electricity  
and carbon markets, to attract diverse market players, and to improve both market  
efficiency and value contribution.  
●
ꢀ Mechanisms for market supervision need to be improved, with the establishment  
of supervisory agencies, the formulation of supervisory regulations, the unification of  
information disclosure and operations monitoring in the power and carbon trading market,  
ensuring the fair trade and free flow of power and carbon emission rights across the  
globe.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
Column 5-3 A joint electricity-carbon market is an irresistible trend [6]  
At present, the global electricity market and carbon market operate independently.  
Nevertheless, the connection between these two is increasingly close in terms of  
the depth and breadth of business and the core policies and attributes of products,  
demonstrating a trend of mutual intersection, mutual influence, and complementary  
development. Simply put, integrated development is becoming an irresistible trend.  
●
ꢀ There is a high degree of overlap between markets and participants. The  
power sector is the carbon market’s key control object and participant, now  
accounting for more than 40% of emissions under carbon market regulation. In  
terms of participants, the 1500 power generation enterprises under the control  
of the EU carbon market account for 86% of the region’s installed thermal power  
capacity and more than 60% of its carbon market emissions.  
●
ꢀ There is a high level of consistency in terms of coverage area. The countries  
covered by electricity market reform are highly consistent with those covered by the  
carbon market. Of the 49 countries that have established electricity markets, 38—or  
78%—already have or have plans to develop carbon markets. Of the 47 countries  
with carbon markets, 38—or 81%—have built or are building electricity markets.  
●
ꢀ Pricing trends are highly correlated. There is a strong correlation between the  
market price of electricity and the market price of carbon. When the price of carbon  
rises, the cost of thermal power generation increases, and the price of electricity  
generally rises in turn. When the price of electricity rises, the cost of power  
production increases, leading to higher demand for carbon emission rights and  
higher carbon prices. In the EU, for example, the correlation coefficient between the  
price of electricity and the price of carbon over the past decade is 0.83. Upward  
and downward trends are highly consistent. The trend of electricity and carbon  
prices in the EU from 2008 to 2018 is shown in Figure 5-5.  
100  
90  
80  
70  
60  
50  
40  
30  
20  
10  
0
Date  
Carbon price (Euro/ton)  
Electricity price (Euro/MWh)  
Figure 5-5 EU Electricity and Carbon Prices, 2008-2018  
186  
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Mechanisms of GEI Cooperation  
●
ꢀ A system for coordinating and managing market operations should be established,  
gradually forming normative rules for market trade, supervisory rules, and operating rules  
for the joint electricity-carbon market.  
●
ꢀ The construction of a global joint trading platform for power and carbon emission rights  
needs to be advanced, as it will gradually build up regional and global electricity and  
carbon markets; research and design need to be conducted for a pricing mechanism in  
the electricity and carbon markets; global green funds and trading entities need to be  
continually guided to engage in carbon emissions mitigation and clean development.  
●
ꢀ On the basis of traditional trading products like electric quantity, capacity, auxiliary  
services, carbon finance, and green certificates, new integrated trading products should  
be identified to enable stable market expectations for the mitigation of carbon emissions  
and the development of clean energy development.  
●
ꢀ The means of user participation in carbon trading should be expanded, related  
derivative products developed, and market liquidity improved.  
5.2.4 Power Interconnection Coordination  
Large power grids need to be taken full advantage of as units of “spatial and temporal  
energy storage”; discrepancies in global time zones, seasons, resource types and  
electricity prices need to be coordinated; the coordinated operation of transnational and  
transcontinental interconnected power networks needs to be strengthened; security  
problems need to be resolved concerning the high proportion of clean energy access and  
the complex environment, as well as the economic problems brought about by the large-  
scale optimal allocation of power resources and the problem of coordinating the operation  
of transnational/transcontinental power grids.  
●
ꢀ The operation mechanism for interconnected power grids should be improved,  
coordinating the joint operation of power grids across countries and regions; in particular,  
research should be conducted on the operating rules adapted to the characteristics  
of clean energy, to promote the large-scale access to and consumption of all kinds of  
centralized and distributed clean energies.  
Column 5-4 Joint dispatch of transnational/transcontinental power grids [7]  
The operation of cross-border transmission systems involves power dispatching  
agencies from all the power trading countries and countries along transmission  
lines. To ensure safe and reliable operation of the power system, it is necessary to  
research and formulate a unified mechanism for joint dispatch among transnational  
and transcontinental power grids.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
●
ꢀ Unified grid operation rules. To ensure efficient and smooth communications  
among the dispatching agencies of different countries, unified rules need to be  
established for grid operation, promoting the steady development of cross-border  
power markets. For example, the European Network of Transmission System  
Operators for Electricity has developed 10 uniform rules for grid access, the power  
market, and grid operations, applying to 42 transmission operators in 35 European  
countries. This is shown in Figure 5-6.  
●
ꢀ Efficient coordination. Cross-border support services and real-time hedging  
transactions are highly correlated with power system operations; thus, the close  
cooperation of power dispatching agencies in different countries, a unified and  
standardized working process for cross-border power dispatch, and the training  
of responsible personnel are required to ensure the orderly development of cross-  
border support services and real-time hedging transactions.  
●
ꢀ Refined information release. Information release should follow the principles of  
integrity, fairness, timeliness, and accuracy, such that power dispatching agencies  
in different countries can grasp cross-border power transaction situations in real  
time and improve the utilization rate of transmission channels. At the same time,  
when a domestic power system's reserve capacity and adjustment capacity decline  
sharply due to unexpected factors, that country should timely inform other power  
dispatching agencies to seek emergency support and avoid large-scale blackouts.  
Power plant access standards  
Grid access rules  
User access standards  
HVDC access standards  
Day-ahead and intraday transmission  
capacity allocation and congestion  
management standards  
Transnational power  
grid technology  
standards  
Medium- and long-term transmission  
capacity allocation standards  
Market rules  
Electricity balance criterion  
System safety standards  
System planning standards  
Grid operation rules  
Frequency modulation and alternate standards  
Emergency operation process  
Figure 5-6 The European Network of Electric Transmission System Operators is  
Governed by Grid Operation  
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Mechanisms of GEI Cooperation  
●
ꢀ An agreement for joint transnational/transcontinental power grid should be formulated  
to standardize the operation of transnational lines, transnational regional power grids  
and intercontinental backbone power grids, to optimize the transnational flow of power,  
and to realize the complementary and mutual assistance functions of transnational/  
transcontinental power grids and coordinated power grids operation at all levels.  
●
ꢀ A global power grid information and early warning system should be established, by  
which power grid operators all over the world can obtain the real-time status and data  
of global, regional, and national power grids, strengthening collaboration for the secure  
operation of power grids.  
5.2.5 Energy Development Assistance  
GEI’s aim to advance clean energy development and power grid construction are  
closely integrated with various countries’ struggles to alleviate poverty, achieve universal  
electricity access, and improve the environment. International mechanisms and  
conventions have been established by the United Nations and governments across the  
world to foster energy development and sustainable economic growth in developing  
countries.  
●
ꢀ Establish a special plan for poverty alleviation with clean energy. Companies and  
individuals in resource-rich but economically disadvantaged regions should be funded  
to develop clean energy, helping them to transform resource advantages into economic  
advantages, fundamentally changing relevant regions’ patterns of energy and economic  
development, and cultivating internal forces driving development.  
●
ꢀ Set up a special fund for clean energy development. Governments around the world  
should provide tax support and make full use of existing policy-based financial institutions  
to raise funds; this will compensate for major power and energy projects’ high capital  
demands, long construction cycles, and slow returns, thereby promoting their successful  
implementation.  
●
ꢀ Provision of aid from developed to developing countries. Developed countries should  
honor their Official Development Assistance (ODA) commitments and step up their  
energy-related support—in terms of finance, technology, and capacity building—  
to developing countries, especially the least developed and small island developing  
states.  
●
ꢀ The mechanism for clean energy trading should favor less developed countries.  
Developed countries should give priority to purchasing surplus electricity from less  
developed regions to realize regional complementarity and mutual assistance. Power  
suppliers, operators, and recipients should work together to maintain the stability of  
the energy market and stimulate the economic development potential of recipient  
countries.  
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5.2.6 Collaboration in Technical Standards  
Concerted efforts should be made among the governments, enterprises, universities,  
and organizations of relevant countries to study and formulate technical standards and  
regulations for GEI project construction, equipment manufacturing, operations and  
maintenance, market trading and other links, pushing for GEI’s coordinated technological  
and industrial development in various countries.  
●
ꢀ Technical standards for transnational power interconnection projects’ construction  
and related equipment should be compiled to reduce construction costs and improve  
economic benefits and reliability.  
●
ꢀ Transnational/transcontinental power trading models and algorithm tools should be  
developed to improve market transparency and bring down transaction costs.  
●
ꢀ The coordination and compatibility of global power grids in terms of technical standards  
and operating procedures should be improved to further enhance the transnational  
synergy of joint grid operations as well as the system’s efficiency and stability.  
●
ꢀ Taking the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as a platform,  
enterprises, universities, and other research institutions should collaborate to develop GEI  
standards and working mechanisms for the regular release and rolling revision of relevant  
technical standards.  
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Mechanisms of GEI Cooperation  
Column 5-5 GEI Technology Standards Framework [8]  
The GEI technology standards framework consists of “4 professional directions, 13  
technical fields, 47 standard series, and several specific standards”, as shown in Figure 5-7.  
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191  
Towards Sustainable Development  
References  
[1] Energy Research Institute (ERI) of the National Development and Reform Commission  
(NDRC) of China. Global Energy Governance Reform and China’s Participation [R].  
2014.  
[2] British Petroleum. Statistical Review of World Energy [R]. 2018.  
[3] Zhang Rui, Wang Xiaofei. Power and Dilemma of Power Interconnection between  
China and ASEAN—Research Based on Regional Public Goods Theory [J].  
International Relations Research 2019, No.42 06 73-91&155-156.  
[4] Han Baoqing. Research on Power Trade Arrangement and Risk Management in  
Greater Mekong Subregion [D]. Doctoral dissertation of University of International  
Business and Economics. 2015.5.  
[5] GEIDCO, State Grid Energy Research Institute, Roland Berger Enterprise  
Management (Shanghai) Co., Ltd. Research on International Power Trading Systems  
and Key Mechanisms under the Background of GEI [R]. 2019.  
[6] GEIDCO. Research Report on Global Electricity-Carbon Market [M].Beijing: China  
Electric Power Press, 2019.  
[7] GEIDCO, State Grid Energy Research Institute, Roland Berger Enterprise Management  
(Shanghai) Co., Ltd. [R]. Research on Key Technology and Implementation Path of  
Cross-border Power Trade and Financial Mechanism Design. 2019.  
[8] GEIDCO. Global Energy Interconnection Standard System Research [R]. 2018.  
192  
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Human Development  
6
Towards Sustainable Development  
GEI full aligns with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030  
Agenda. By implementing “Ten Actions”—including clean development,  
power grid interconnection, electricity replacement, and energy efficiency  
enhancement—and establishing “Six Cooperation Mechanisms”—global  
energy planning, transnational project construction, integrated electricity-  
carbon trading, power interconnection coordination, energy development  
assistance, and collaboration in technical standards—GEI makes full use  
of the energy’s leading and driving roles and puts human society on track  
towards sustainable development. As a large-scale and systematic project  
unprecedented in the field of energy, GEI transcends the boundaries of  
nation and civilization. GEI has the potential to bring comprehensive, in-  
depth, long-lasting, significant changes to the development of energy,  
economy, society, and environment. GEI can also bring to a fundamental  
end to major issues that have long beset human development—such as  
energy shortages, feeble economic growth, social imbalance, climate  
change, and environmental pollution. GEI shapes a new landscape for  
energy development, injects new momentum into economic growth,  
’
improves people s lives, and makes our home more beautiful. GEI drives  
the construction of a “global village” enjoying sufficient energy, a beautiful  
environment, and peaceful and harmonious development. GEI opens up a  
brighter future for sustainable human development.  
6.1 Sustainable Energy Development Realized  
Energy is the bond and the bridge connecting all Sustainable Development Goals.  
Building GEI, comprehensively advancing the “Two Replacements”, and establishing a  
modern energy system featuring global coverage, light-speed transmission, extensive  
interconnection, intelligent technology, and high efficiency will drive global energy  
development into the new era where clean energy plays the main role in energy  
development and electricity accounts for a significant proportion of energy consumption.  
By then, our energy supply will be safer, greener, and more sufficient, lending a strong  
and lasting momentum to both social and economic development.  
An adequate and reliable energy supply. With GEI as the platform and technological  
innovation as the driving force, all manner of natural energy sources—including Arctic  
winds, equatorial sunlight, and the rivers that crisscross our continents—will be fully  
exploited and efficiently utilized. By these methods, humankinds’ resource constraints  
will be thoroughly eradicated, ushering in a new era defined by an inexhaustible supply  
of energy. By 2050, clean energy’s global installed capacity and electricity output  
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GEI and Sustainable Human Development  
are respectively expected to reach 22TW and 53,000TWh, each accounting for more  
than 80% of those total values, and meeting more than 90% of the world’s energy and  
electricity demand. Global electricity consumption per capita will more than double—  
from 3000kWh in 2016 to 6300 kWh in 2050—achieving the goal of universal sustainable  
energy. A number of issues that have long plagued humankind, such as lack of resources  
and shortages of electricity, will be relegated to history. Countries worldwide will all gain  
access to reliable energy through independent clean energy development. With the  
support of sufficient energy, human society will be able to meet all kinds of needs and  
achieve great material abundance.  
Energy-efficient utilization. GEI gives full play to the scale and economic effects as  
of large-scale networks, can realize overall optimization of and real-time adjustments to  
production, transmission, distribution, and other energy systems, and can significantly  
improve the energy system’s efficiency and benefits. Future clean energy offers advantages  
to the development chain including low cost, diversified sources, and sufficient resources;  
these will be fully utilized to promote the coordinated development and joint operation  
of wind, PV, and hydro power bases around the world and to maximize the efficiency  
and economy of resource development and utilization. In allocation, comprehensive  
consideration will be given to different regions’ load characteristics, distribution of  
clean energy resources, and actual energy demands. Intercontinental, intracontinental,  
and national “energy highways” will be constructed, reaching a total interregional/  
intercontinental power flow of more than 660GW by 2050, achieving optimal large-  
scale clean energy distribution around the world. In consumption, a global energy  
and electricity market will be established with GEI as the platform. Regional and  
temporal constraints on energy consumption will be removed; the problems of  
underconsumption in energy-rich areas and undersupply in energy load centers will  
fundamentally cease to exist; terminal energy efficiency and the overall efficiency of  
energy systems will be improved.  
Clean, green energy dominance. Accelerating clean energy development and utilization  
answers to the call of the times for sustainable development as well as the historic trend  
of energy transition. Reliance on GEI will boost the construction of wind, PV, and hydro  
power bases worldwide that their electricity output reaches tens of millions of kilowatts; it  
will widen the deployment of various distributed power sources in urban and rural areas; it  
will guide the phasing out of fossil fuel power plants (e.g. coal power plants) in a scientific  
and orderly manner; it will achieve remarkable developments in clean energy and its  
comprehensive application; and it will shape a new landscape for energy development  
with clean energy in the dominant role and electricity at the center. By 2050, clean  
energy will account for more than 70% of primary energy and clean electricity will  
account for more than 50% of total final energy consumption. Human society’s  
demand for energy and electricity will be largely met in a clean, green manner and  
global development will be no longer constrained by the depletion of fossil fuels. We  
are set to enter a new era of electrification wherein “clean electricity everywhere” is a  
deliverable promise.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
6.2 Sustainable Economic Development Realized  
Economic development is an important basis and necessary condition for achieving  
sustainable development. By restructuring the energy mix and reshaping energy systems,  
GEI can drive the transformation of our means of economic development. Emancipating  
energy elements, upgrading technology industries, and innovating mechanism models,  
GEI can effectively resolve the weakening of traditional growth engines to drive economic  
development. Through reform and innovation, GEI promotes high-quality, coordinated,  
inclusive, and sustainable economic development and build a more prosperous world.  
Comprehensively higher-quality economic development. As an innovative platform  
for global flows of energy, information, and cash, GEI will vigorously drive technological  
advancement and industrial transformation while transforming modes of production:  
making a radical shift from high-pollution, high-emission, high-energy models relying  
heavily on fossil fuels to green, low-carbon development models; redirecting the pattern  
of economic growth towards sustainable production and consumption; accelerating  
the global circulation of energy, technology, investment, human resources, and  
other economic factors; and optimizing the global economic structure and means of  
development. Scale production and networked allocation with clean energy in a dominant  
role can significantly cut energy costs and improve energy efficiency for all of society. By  
2050, energy consumption per dollar of GDP should drop to 80g of tce—over 50% lower  
than in 2018; global average LCOE should be at least 40% lower than in 2018; electricity  
spending should be reduced by USD 1.8 trillion every year. With the guarantee of more  
affordable, more efficient energy, high-quality economic growth can be secured as well.  
Stimulation for economic momentum. Broadly-based, technologically sophisticated GEI  
provides a powerful engine for technological, industrial, and business model innovations  
to stimulate sustained economic growth. In terms of technology, GEI integrates such  
advancements as energy and electricity, artificial intelligence, big data, cloud computing  
and block chain, accelerating the transformation of the traditional industrial economy  
through innovation and fostering new business formats and new driving forces. In terms  
of industry, GEI (in the fields of power supply, power grid, etc.) has a total investment  
of about USD 30-40 trillion, a 2%-2.2% contribution to global economic growth. GEI will  
not only promote the quickened development of emerging industries like new energy,  
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GEI and Sustainable Human Development  
new materials, high-end equipment, intelligent manufacturing and electric cars; it will  
also create more than 300 million jobs and cultivate new growth points for the global  
economy. GEI will help advance the integrated development of energy, transportation,  
and information networks. The new type of infrastructure network it fosters will promote  
global connectivity, joint contribution, shared benefits, green development, and intelligent  
technology, laying a new foundation for a modern economic system. In terms of business  
models, GEI relies on smart electricity technologies to realize two-way interaction between  
network users, shaping a new landscape in which everyone is an electricity producer  
and consumer, thereby completely overturning the service and marketing modes of the  
traditional energy network. GEI will also develop novel energy business models, including  
for generation, storage, power saving and peak regulation. Meanwhile , as the progress of  
GEI development advances, so too will the mutual penetration and integration of various  
fields—including energy, construction, transportation, industry, agriculture, education and  
trade—to drive interaction, transformation, upgrading and reengineering among related  
industries and forming a new batch of co-development models represented by “electricity-  
mining-metallurgy-industry-trade”. Such integration will increase the added value through  
innovation and inject new impetus into economic growth.  
Coordinated development of the world economy. GEI has built a global industrial  
chain and a global value chain with energy as the link. This chain features extensive  
consultation, joint contribution, and shared benefits, which will promote coordinated  
development and win-win cooperation among countries and regions. With the large-  
scale development of global clean energy, the electricity trade has become the main  
form of the global energy trade. Through clean energy development and transnational/  
transcontinental electricity transmission, African and Latin American countries have not  
only effectively resolved the problem of their own energy supply, but have also turned  
their respective resource advantages (e.g. in PV, wind, or hydro power) into real economic  
advantages. This has enabled their emergence as drivers of new growth in the world  
economy. Moreover, GEI has also boosted infrastructure investment, construction, and  
connectivity among countries worldwide, promoted integrated regional development,  
greatly improved electricity supply security and the economic development capabilities  
of undeveloped countries and regions, narrowed both the North-South and East-West  
gaps, made global economic growth more balanced and coordinated, eliminated regional  
poverty, and contributed to inclusive global growth.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
6.3 Sustainable Social Development Realized  
Advancing all-round social progress is the fundamental goal of sustainable development.  
As a clean, electrified, intelligent and networked energy supply security system, GEI will  
significantly improve people's standards of living, create a favorable social environment,  
and, by fundamentally changing the modes and models of energy and economic  
development, build a modern society that is people-oriented, efficient, and harmonious.  
A better quality of life. Relying on cutting-edge technologies in energy, information,  
communications, manufacturing and other fields, GEI will have a profound impact  
on public life, comprehensively raising levels of social development. In the field of  
production, with sufficient, economical, and sustainable clean energy as a guarantee and  
an information technology system as the basic platform, intelligent, automatic and scaled  
production will become the new normal; unmanned transportation and logistics system  
will be promoted across the board; thus production quality and efficiency will be greatly  
improved. In areas of consumer life, household appliances, vehicles, portable equipment  
and more will develop intelligent capacities; educational, medical, consulting and other  
service resources will be directly delivered to all parts of the world via the Internet; thus  
the personalized needs of people of all different ages will be met, and levels of education  
and health among populations in underdeveloped regions will be improved. As productive  
forces are further unleashed and living standards constantly improved, humankind need  
no longer toil away doing tedious tasks to fulfill material desires; they will have more time  
and energy to engage in enjoyable creative labor; people will be freer to choose their own  
paths of personal development. Humankind will fully enjoy unprecedented conveniences  
and benefits brought about by GEI.  
An efficient social structure. Energy transitions play a decisive role in upgrading modes  
of social production and forms of organization. As a basic platform for carrying out a new  
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GEI and Sustainable Human Development  
industrial revolution, GEI is deeply integrated with the Internet and the Internet of Things to  
offer services covering all fields and industries. GEI therefore enjoys extensive interactivity  
and synergy; it will play an increasingly important role in the integration and sharing of social  
resources and in many industries’ coordinated, innovation-driven development. As GEI pushes  
energy reform and transformation forward, the whole social system from economic structure  
to modes of production to lifestyle will all undergo massive changes. Society’s previously rigid  
hierarchical organization will give way to a new, mobile, networked organization; as this more  
efficient, flattened structure becomes more and more popular, people will work in and benefit  
from a freer working environment and a more efficient social division of labor.  
The advancement of world peace. In essence, to build GEI is to build a global energy  
community with a shared future for humankind. As an important component of building a  
community with a shared future for humankind, GEI will contribute positively to international  
cooperation and the formation of a more harmonious world. Relying on transnational/  
transcontinental power interconnection and a new global power market, GEI will form  
of a community of shared interests consisting of clean energy exporting, transmitting,  
and receiving countries; it will establish a new international energy order based on equal  
consultation and win-win cooperation; it will shape a new landscape for fairer, more reasonable  
global governance. By accelerating the development of clean energy and transnational  
sharing worldwide, GEI can guarantee sufficient energy for their economic and social  
development, negating energy as a constraining factor to development or cause of  
geopolitical conflict, for a lasting safe and stable environment. By bonds of energy  
interconnection, joint contribution, and shared benefits, GEI will encourage governments,  
enterprises, and institutions to carry out multi-level, cross-field, all-round cooperation,  
build a cooperation platform that is open, inclusive, and mutually beneficial, further  
strengthen policy communication, trade engagement, and people-to-people exchanges  
among all nations, promoting exchanges, learning, complementarity, and common  
progress between different civilizations.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
6.4 Sustainable Environmental Development Realized  
A quality ecological environment and sustainable resource usage are the hallmarks  
of sustainable development. Committed to the philosophy of ecological civilization  
throughout energy production and consumption, GEI adheres to the core principle of  
clean development and encourages a green, low-carbon and sustainable model of  
development. As a result, GEI can push forward climate change governance, ecological  
environmental protection, and the sustainable use of resources, making a new path  
characterized by coordinated energy-environmental development and realizing  
harmonious coexistence between human and nature.  
Effective climate change control. GEI provides a systematic solution to global climate  
governance that will fundamentally crack the tough issue of climate change. As both  
an important carrier of and an excellent tool for implementation of the Paris Agreement,  
GEI can: promote the alignment of countries worldwide in development planning, policy  
mechanisms, and mitigation actions; offer mature advanced energy technologies and  
replicate its successful experience in green, low-carbon development concepts to  
deal with climate change worldwide; and provide a workable and applicable action  
guide for all countries to collectively realize the goals of the Paris Agreement. As an  
innovative project that combines major measures against climate change such as  
clean energy development, power grid interconnection, electricity replacement, and  
energy efficiency enhancement, GEI will accelerate the work of countries worldwide  
in developing green energy, eliminating heavy dependence on carbon in energy  
systems, and reducing carbon footprints in economic growth, thereby bringing the  
contradiction between development and mitigation to a fundamental end. Mitigation  
targets will be achieved more quickly, with fewer costs and at lower expense. Under  
the GEI Scenario, Global carbon emissions should peak by 2025. By 2035, clean  
energy should surpass fossil fuels as the main source of energy supply, and global  
carbon emissions should fall by about 50% (from the peak). By around 2050, the goal  
of global net-zero emissions can be basically accomplished, the control target of the  
Paris Agreement achieved.  
A substantively improved natural environment. As GEI development makes continuous  
progress, clean energy will become the main source of energy production and  
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GEI and Sustainable Human Development  
consumption; all kinds of pollutant emissions will be significantly mitigated; air, water, land,  
and vegetation will be comprehensively restored; and humankind will enjoy a beautiful  
living environment with blue skies, clear waters, and green mountains. All field and  
industries will see the implementation of clean replacement and electricity replacement,  
generating a 70% reduction in air pollutant emissions caused by the consumption of fossil  
fuels. By 2050, SO2, nitrogen oxide, and fine particle emissions will be reduced by over  
600Mt each year, reintroducing humankind to blue skies and fresh air. Lake, river, and  
ocean pollution brought about by the exploitation, processing, transportation, storage, and  
usage of fossil fuels will be substantially reduced; large-scale desalination based in clean  
electricity will completely resolve fresh water shortages; humankind’s “source of life” will  
be actively protected. Environmental governance actions based on wind power, PV, and  
other clean energy bases will form a new model integrating energy development, desert  
governance, and vegetation protection; the use and restoration of desertified land will be  
effectively promoted, the degradation of forests and biodiversity alleviated, the ecological  
environment significantly improved, that our earth may maintain its vitality forever.  
Advancement of an ecological civilization. GEI adheres to the principles of clean  
development, prioritizing nature conservation and protection and promoting the deep  
integration of green energy production and consumption into all fields and links of human  
society that it may be a fundamental force driving the formation of a global ecological  
civilization. GEI will open the door to a zero-carbon society. In the process of developing  
and utilizing clean energy, humankind will also develop and uphold a new concept of  
respecting nature, protecting nature, and maintaining coordinated development with  
nature, We will change our modes of production and lifestyle that don't conform to the  
green economy, promote the intensive use of resources, develop circular economy  
industries, and establish new patterns of production and consumption that are green,  
intensive, and sustainable. Under the guidance of GEI, these green, low-carbon,  
energy-saving, and environment-friendly industries will serve as a powerful engine for  
economic growth. Human society will advance towards its resource-saving, environment-  
friendly, high-quality, and high-efficiency targets. Humanity will eventually transcend the  
boundaries of race and nation and the interests of collective and individual, will cooperate  
equally, establish mutual assistance and mutual benefits, protecting and building our  
home together, and opening the way to a brighter future of harmonious coexistence  
between human and nature and of sustainable development in both economy and society.  
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Towards Sustainable Development  
References  
[1] Liu Zhenya. Global Energy Interconnection [M]. Beijing: China Electric Power Press.  
2015.  
[2] GEIDCO. Research and Outlook on Global Energy Interconnection [M]. Beijing:  
China Electric Power Press, 2019.  
[3] GEIDCO. Research Report on Global Energy Interconnection for Addressing Climate  
Change [M]. Beijing: China Electric Power Press, 2019.  
[4] GEIDCO. GEI Action Plan for Promoting Global Environmental Protection [R]. 2019.  
[5] GEIDCO. GEI Action Plan for Addressing Electricity Access, Poverty and Health  
Issues [R]. 2019.  
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